Papers by Keyword: Esterification

Abstract: Solid acid catalysts offer several advantages over liquid acids, primarily in terms of environmental friendliness, ease of separation, and reusability. They have enhanced selectivity and catalytic activity. They are particularly useful in industrial processes where corrosive liquid acids pose handling and waste disposal challenges. Potential solid acid catalysts can be prepared by the modification of naturally occurring clay samples like kaolinite, bentonite, etc. A new, economically and environmentally benign solid acid catalyst for the esterification of cyclohexanol with glacial acetic acid has been prepared from bentonite by mixing with carbon nanodots (CND) prepared from different sources. The carbon sources used for the preparation of CND are glucose, watermelon peel, lemon peel and sucrose. The samples were characterized by acidity measurements and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The XRD pattern of the sample showed that both the components (carbon nanodots and bentonite) are present in the Clay-CND composite. Clay-CND composites showed greater acidity and activity than the pure clay sample. The results showed that the greater the amount of carbon nanodots in the clay-CND composite greater the activity and acidity. Acidity and catalytic activity are correlated. The sample B-SCND, in which CND was prepared from sucrose, showed maximum percentage conversion and acidity.

Abstract: This Final Project research focuses on the synthesis of pour point depressant (PPD) from Black Soldier Fly (BSF) Maggot Oil to reduce the pour point of crude oil samples. Crude oil itself is a non-renewable energy source that is still in high demand in Indonesia, especially as a vehicle fuel. Crude oil contains paraffin wax, which can crystallize and hinder the transportation and production processes of crude oil. Therefore, this study aims to produce PPD from BSF maggots as an additive for crude oil to ensure its smooth flow. Maggots were chosen due to their high fatty acid content, ranging from 29% to 32%, making them a potential source for PPD. The method used for PPD synthesis involves esterification using a reflux process. Pour point testing will be conducted using the ASTM D-5853 method. The synthesized PPD could lower the pour point of crude oil by up to 24°C from the original 39°C. Characterization using FTIR testing successfully revealed C-O vibrations (ester groups) at the wave number range of 1158 – 1155 cm^-1 while eliminating O-H vibrations (carboxylic acid groups). GC-MS characterization was also conducted to identify the formed ester compounds. The GC-MS results showed that PPD 1 had the highest ester content at 87.71%. Keywords: Crude Oil, Esterification, Pour Point Depressant, Maggot, Paraffin, Pour Point.

Abstract: To perform a comparative study of the performance combustion and emission characteristics of pure diesel and mustered blends, a single-cylinder stationary Kirloskar TV1 Engine.xls engine was used. The ratio of mustered oil blends to diesel was 60%. The mustered blend was selected appropriately and the compression ratio was optimized for this study. From this report it is proven that the most favorable of mustered and diesel blends is 60% of mustered and 40% of diesel with compression ratio 14:1,15:1,16:1 & 17.5:1.In comparison, the release of CO was reduced; however, there was a moderate increase in the release of NOx. Therefore, with only a slight alteration in the present diesel engines, the algae blend can be used.

Abstract: The increasing human population drives up energy consumption, particularly in the transportation and industrial sectors. Due to the limited and non-renewable availability of fossil fuels encourages various technological developments in the field of renewable energy, including biodiesel. Biodiesel is a biodegradable, non-toxic, and environmentally favorable renewable fuel. One of typical technique of biodiesel production is involving esterification reaction between fatty acids and alcohols by addition acid catalyst to enhance reaction rate. Solid acid catalysts are widely utilized for esterification reaction due to their ability to overcome the drawback of homogeneous catalysts that are difficult to separate. Solid acid catalysts can be produced from cellulose aerogel derived from coir fiber, which is then pyrolyzed into carbon aerogel and sulfonated through grafting process. Although sulfuric acid is a common sulfonic agent used in the catalyst sulfonation process, it has a lengthy grafting time. The addition of 4-aminobenzenesulfonic acid (sulfanilic acid) as a sulfonic agent alternative for sulfuric acid was investigated in this work. This paper reports the methods for preparing cellulose aerogel derived from coir fiber, pyrolysis of cellulose aerogel into carbon aerogel, sulfonation of carbon aerogel into solid acid catalyst, and application of solid acid catalyst for ethyl acetate production. The solid acid catalyst characterization tests include acid density, adsorption-desorption nitrogen analysis, SEM, and FTIR analysis. According to the adsorption-desorption nitrogen analysis results, the sulfonated carbon aerogel catalyst has a specific surface area of 220.29 g/m². Sulfonated carbon aerogel catalyst with acid density value of 2.81 mmol/g can be obtained at the mass ratio of sulfanilic acid to carbon substrates of 1:1 and pyrolysis temperature of 700°C. The esterification reaction was carried out at 80°C and reached a conversion of 31.37% after 4 h.

Abstract: Vegetable oils and animal fats and have been extensively used for biolubricant purposes for countless years. Through the discovery of petroleum and the availability of inexpensive oils, the vegetable oils or their derivatives are decent alternatives to replace the existence of petroleum oils as lubricants or lubricant additives in numerous industrial applications. In addition, vegetable oils have a very high viscosity index and it does not distress by the high temperature. Apart from that, the high flash point and low volatility are also known as the vegetable oil’s forte, making it always be prominent compared to the other oils. However, vegetable oils also have been reported to have a low thermal and oxidative stability, which attain less auspicious to be used as a lubricant. In this study, the Jatropha Curcas oil had been used as a raw material in the production of the biolubricant process with the enhancement of the lubricant properties by the aid of 2,3-butanediol. Initially, the Jatropha Curcas was hydrolyzed to obtain the fatty acid before being further esterified with 2,3 butanediol (acted as capping material) to form ester 2,3-butanediol. The hydrolyzed and esterified products have been analyzed by using the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectra (GC-MS) and the Fourier Transforms Infra-Red (FTIR). The GCMS results showed the composition of fatty acids and ester formed remain 95-99% in the product. The absorption wavelength was detected around 1715.93 cm^-1, further confirming the formation of ester 2,3-butanediol. Overall, the pour point of the product was obtained as low as 5 °C with a flash point at 210 °C and the viscosity of ester 2,3-butanediol was 60.9 cp. (0.78 in).

Abstract: Cellulose modification is a challenge due to molecules characteristics – equatorial conformation, hydrogen bonds both withing molecule and among neighboring molecules etc. Esterification of cellulose hydroxyl groups (-OH) with dicarboxylic compounds is challenging. In presented study simple modification with maleic anhydride is performed in an anhydrous environment. Scanning electron microscopy reveals clean fibers of cellulose-maleic anhydride derivatives. FTIR proves unique peak at 1735cm^-1 that corresponds to ester carbonyl groups. Titration of carboxylic (-COOH) groups solidifies that one part of anhydride has bonded with cellulose and other carboxylic groups is accessible for further development.

Abstract: Patchouli alcohol was isolated from patchouli oil by fractional distillation under reduced pressure. Patchouli esters were then prepared from isolated patchouli alcohol via esterification reaction in the presence of homogeneous (concentrated hydrochloric acid) and heterogeneous (acid-activated bentonite) catalysts. Fractional distillation under reduced pressure was carried out by heating patchouli oil under a pressure until 0 mmHg. Esterification reaction was carried out by heating patchouli alcohol with propionic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst at 100-110 for 3 h The products were characterized using FTIR and GCMS spectrometers. The esterification reaction with HCl 37% and bentonite catalysts produced patchouli propionate in 26% and 21% yields, respectively.

Abstract: A kinetics study of free fatty acid (FFA) esterification from sludge palm oil (SPO) using zeolite sulfonated biochar from molasses composite catalyst has been conducted. The effect of reaction temperature (60, 70, 80°C) and the molar ratio of methanol to free fatty acids (17:1, 20:1, 23:1, 26:1, 29:1) on the kinetic parameters such as reaction rate, Arrhenius constant, activation energy, and enthalpy energy were investigated. The study showed that the reaction temperature and the initial free fatty acids concentration were positively correlated with the reaction rate as well as the reaction rate constant. The forward activation energy and Arrhenius constant for FAME formation were 30.6537 kJ/mol and 2.04 x 10², respectively, while the backward activation energy and Arrhenius constant were 15.8714 kJ/mol and 2.502, respectively. The positive enthalpy value was 14.7823 kJ/mol indicates the reaction endothermically occurred. The validation of the kinetic model gives an R² value of 0.9612 indicates that the model was acceptable and provided a predicted value close to the actual value.

Abstract: Biodiesel production from waste-or by-product oils having high free fatty acid (FFA) contents is required oil pretreatment. Esterification has been used to reduce FFA contents of crude oils prior to transesterification. In this present work, palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) oil which is a by-product from the palm oil industry was used as feedstock for biodiesel production. The EFB oil has very high FFA contents. Thus, esterification of the oil was carried out. The esterification was enhanced by dual frequency ultrasound waves (28 kHz + 40 kHz). Zeolite was used as a heterogenous acid catalyst. Methanol to oil (M:O) molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction were main factors affecting on the process and were investigated using central composite design (CCD) of experiment. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimise these parameters. The results showed that at the optimised condition of 12:1 M:O molar ratio, 11.36 %wt catalyst loading and 60 min of reaction time, the FFA conversion was highest at 91.69% compared with the predicted value of 93.56% which was only 1.99% difference between tested and predicted values.

Abstract: Lubricants are commonly used in machining and energy system to reduce friction and wear within moving parts and aid in the transfer of heat. The use of lubricants enhances the overall performance and operation life of systems. Synthetic lubricants commonly used are non-biodegradable and are harmful to aquatic and land habitats. To overcome these challenges, biolubricants from vegetable and animal sources were considered as an alternative to synthetic and mineral lubricants. In this study, the esterification and transesterification processes were used to produce biolubricant from castor oil. Methanol and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) were used as alcohol and catalyst respectively for the acid catalysed esterification while ethylene glycol and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were used for the transesterification process. The average biodiesel yield was 99.87%. The two-step method was deployed in the preparation of the castor nanobiolubricant. The nanobiolubricants were prepared using aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) nanoparticles of 20 – 30 nm nominal diameter. The volume concentrations of 0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.4% were used in the preparation of the nanobiolubricants. The results showed that the addition of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles into the castor oil biodiesel altered the thermophysical properties (density, dynamic viscosity, pH, acidity, free fatty acid (FFA), flash point, and cold properties) of the biolubricants. The addition of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles reduced the acidity, flash point, and pH value of biolubricant while the cold flow property was improved. The dynamic viscosity decreased with an increase in temperature and increased as the nanoparticle concentration increased. The results were compared with the thermophysical properties of mineral oil, and from these analyses, Al₂O₃ nanobiolubricant can be successfully deployed as an alternative to synthetic and mineral lubricants in machining and energy systems. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and UV-Vis analyses were conducted on the castor oil, its biolubricant, and nanobiolubricants.