Engineering Chemistry, ISSN: 2813-6535, Vol. 13, pp 83-92

doi: 10.4028/p-tHuQM5

© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2025-02-24

Revised:
2025-09-12

Accepted:
2025-09-29

Optimizing Co-Firing Ratio of RDF MSW and Coal in a Fluidized Bed Reactor

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

I Made Agus Putrawan , I Nyoman Suprapta Winaya , I Nengah Simpen , Ida Bagus Alit Swamardika , I Made Rajendra , Wayan Gede Ariastina , I Putu Angga Yuda Pratama , I Gusti Ngurah Putu Tenaya

Udayana University Engineering Science Doctoral Study Program, JI. PB Sudirman, DenpasarBali, Indonesia

Mechanical Engineering Udayana University, JI. Kampus Bukit Jimbaran-Bali, Indonesia

Chemical Engineering Udayana University, JI. Kampus Bukit Jimbaran-Bali, Indonesia

Electrical Engineering Udayana University, JI. Kampus Bukit Jimbaran-Bali, Indonesia

Mechanical Engineering, Bali State Polytechnic, JI. Kampus Bukit Jimbaran-Bali, Indonesia

agusputrawan@pnb.ac.id, ins.winaya@unud.ac.id, nengahsimpen@unud.ac.id,

gusalit@unud.ac.id, maderajendra@pnb.ac.id, w.ariastina@unud.ac.id, ipa.yudapratama@unud.ac.id, ngrtenaya@unud.ac.id

Keywords: Co-firing ratio, RDF, MSW, coal, fluidized bed, combustion efficiency, waste-to-energy.

Abstract

Co-firing Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) with coal presents a promising approach to urban waste management and reduction of fossil fuel dependency. This study primarily investigates the optimal co-firing ratio of RDF MSW and coal, alongside other operational parameters, in a laboratory-scale fluidized bed reactor. Experiments were conducted with variations in RDF MSW to coal ratio ( ), operating temperature ( ), and excess air ( ) in a reactor with a combustion chamber volume of . Results demonstrate that the co-firing ratio significantly influences combustion efficiency and overall performance. The optimal ratio was found to be RDF MSW with coal, yielding a peak combustion efficiency of and a minimum Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) of 0.19260 . This optimal ratio balances the benefits of RDF's higher volatile content with coal's stable combustion characteristics. Additionally, an operating temperature of and excess air of complemented this optimal ratio, further enhancing stability and efficiency. SEM analysis and chemical composition studies of agglomerates revealed the role of , and Mg in deposit formation, providing insights into the interaction between RDF and coal during co-firing. This research offers valuable guidance for optimizing co-firing ratios in industrial applications, supporting the development of more efficient and environmentally friendly waste-to-energy solutions.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

Indonesia faces significant waste management challenges, generating approximately 29 million tons of waste annually, with only being properly managed [1]. The conversion of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) to Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) presents a promising solution that aligns with Indonesia's renewable energy targets of by 2025 and by 2050 [2].

The implementation of RDF MSW co-firing with coal offers a cost-effective approach to reducing fossil fuel dependency while addressing waste management issues. Direct co-firing technology requires minimal modifications to existing power plants, making it an economically viable option for reducing , NOx, and SOx emissions [3]. Studies have shown that co-firing can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to compared to coal-only combustion [4]. Moreover, the economic analysis of RDF co-firing implementation indicates potential cost savings of in fuel expenses, depending on the mixing ratio and local waste availability [5]. The technical feasibility of co-firing
has been demonstrated across various scales, with successful implementations reporting minimal impact on boiler efficiency when proper pre-treatment and mixing procedures are followed [6].

Fluidized bed technology has emerged as an efficient platform for RDF-coal co-firing, offering superior mixing characteristics and enhanced heat transfer. The technology's success relies heavily on operational parameters, including bed material properties and combustion conditions [7]. Silica sand, used as bed material, contributes to high combustion efficiency through its excellent heat transfer properties and thermal stability [8]. Recent studies have demonstrated that fluidized bed systems can achieve combustion efficiencies up to when operating under optimized conditions [9]. Research by Chen et al. [10] has shown that proper bed material selection and management can reduce agglomeration tendencies and improve overall system stability. Furthermore, investigations into heat transfer mechanisms in fluidized beds have revealed that the technology can maintain stable combustion even with fuel moisture content variations of up to [11].

Previous studies have investigated various RDF-coal mixing ratios, with results indicating significant effects on system performance. Research has shown that a RDF mixture maintains stable furnace temperatures around [12], while a ratio impacts thermal efficiency and Net Plant Heat Rate in large-scale applications [13]. These studies have highlighted the complexities of co-firing systems, particularly regarding combustion stability, emission characteristics, and operational challenges. However, comprehensive studies optimizing RDF-coal ratios alongside other operational parameters remain limited, particularly in laboratory-scale investigations. This research gap, combined with the need to balance environmental benefits, operational stability, and economic viability, underscores the importance of determining optimal co-firing conditions. This study primarily investigates the optimal co-firing ratio of RDF MSW and coal, alongside critical operational parameters such as temperature and excess air, in a laboratory-scale fluidized bed reactor.

The novelty of this research lies in its comprehensive approach to simultaneously optimizing multiple operational parameters while examining their interdependent effects on combustion efficiency and specific fuel consumption. Furthermore, this study provides valuable insights into deposit formation mechanisms through detailed SEM analysis and chemical composition studies of agglomerates, contributing to the fundamental understanding of RDF-coal co-firing behaviour in fluidized bed systems. The investigation of deposit formation is particularly crucial as it addresses one of the major operational challenges in co-firing systems - the potential for fouling and slagging that can impact long-term system performance and maintenance requirements. These findings bridge the gap between laboratory research and industrial application, offering practical guidelines for implementing efficient RDF-coal co-firing systems in waste-to-energy facilities, ultimately contributing to more sustainable waste management and energy production practices in developing countries.

Method

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

Fluidized bed combustion system. The direct co-firing of RDF MSW and coal was conducted using a laboratory-scale fluidized bed combustion system. The experimental apparatus for direct co-firing of MSW-derived RDF and coal utilized a Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) technology, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The combustion system consisted of several integrated components designed to ensure controlled and efficient combustion processes. The primary combustion chamber (1), equipped with an external heat source, featured a total volume of . A specially designed distributor plate (2) was installed at the base of the combustion chamber to ensure uniform air distribution and proper fluidization of the bed material. The experimental procedure began with the introduction of silica sand as the bed material, followed by nitrogen gas purging (3) to create an inert environment within the reactor, preventing premature oxidation and ensuring controlled combustion conditions. The reactor was heated to the desired operational temperature ( ) using external electric heaters (4) positioned strategically around the combustion chamber. To maintain thermal efficiency and minimize heat losses, the reactor walls were insulated with glass wool (6), providing effective thermal isolation of the combustion zone.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

The fluidization and combustion air was supplied via a compressor (7), with the minimum fluidization velocity maintained at , precisely monitored using an anemometer (8). The fuel feeding system consisted of a calibrated fuel feeder (9) designed to deliver consistent mixtures of RDF MSW and coal at predetermined ratios. The exhaust gas treatment system incorporated a series of components: a gas filtration unit (10) for particulate removal, a cooling box (11) for temperature reduction of the exhaust gases, and a gas analyser (12) for continuous monitoring of emission products. Temperature measurements throughout the combustion process were recorded using K-type thermocouples (13) connected to a data acquisition system, enabling real-time monitoring and analysis of the combustion characteristics. The residual ash was collected and weighed postcombustion to determine the specific fuel consumption rate and combustion efficiency.

Materials and experimental setup. Prior to each experimental run, silica sand (mean particle size: , bulk density: ) was introduced into the reactor as bed material. The system was initially purged with nitrogen gas to create an inert environment and prevent premature oxidation. Since this work was conducted at laboratory scale, an external heating source was required to initiate and stabilize combustion. However, during steady-state operation, the combustion process was sustained primarily by the fuel mixture (RDF and coal). To minimize heat loss and maintain thermal stability, the reactor walls were insulated with glass wool with a thermal conductivity of . Compressed air was supplied through a compressor and regulated to maintain a minimum fluidization velocity of , monitored using a calibrated flow meter. The RDF MSW and coal mixture was continuously fed through a calibrated fuel feeder to ensure consistent fuel supply during the combustion process. The exhaust gases passed through a filtration system and were cooled in a cooling box before analysis. A gas analyzer was employed to measure the concentration of various combustion products ( , and SOx ). Throughout the incineration process, combustion temperatures were continuously monitored using K-type thermocouples with an accuracy of .

The experiments were conducted under systematically varied conditions to investigate the effects of key operational parameters. These parameters included RDF MSW to coal ratios of , and (by weight), operating temperatures of , and , and excess air ratios of , and . Temperature profiles and combustion duration were recorded at 1 -second intervals using a data acquisition system. The ash residue was collected and weighed after each experimental run to determine the specific fuel consumption rate. The combustion efficiency was calculated based on the carbon conversion rate and heat loss analysis. Each experimental condition was repeated three times to ensure reproducibility, with the average values used for analysis.

Throughout the experiments, several key performance indicators were measured and analyzed, including combustion temperature profiles, specific fuel consumption rate, emission concentrations (CO, , NOx, SOx), ash characteristics and composition, carbon conversion efficiency, and heat transfer effectiveness. This comprehensive experimental approach enabled detailed investigation of the relationship between operational parameters and system performance, particularly focusing on the effects of varying RDF-to-coal ratios on combustion efficiency and emissions characteristics. The systematic variation of parameters allowed for the identification of optimal operating conditions that maximize combustion efficiency while minimizing environmental impact.

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

RDF-MSW composition ratio. As seen from Fig. 2, the experimental results demonstrated that increasing the RDF percentage up to in the fuel mixture enhanced combustion efficiency, a finding consistent with previous studies on RDF-coal co-firing systems [4]. However, further increases in the RDF-to-coal ratio led to decreased efficiency, aligning with the observations reported by [5] in their large-scale co-firing trials. The optimal performance was achieved with a mixture of coal and RDF, yielding the highest efficiency of with the specific fuel consumption of . These results demonstrate comparable or superior performance to conventional coal combustion systems, as documented in similar studies [14].

Fig. 2. Variation of RDF Coal Ratio to Efficiency of FBC system

Fig. 2. Variation of RDF Coal Ratio to Efficiency of FBC system

Temperature variation experiments conducted at demonstrated stable temperature distribution immediately after fuel feeding, as illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. The temperature profile along the bed at temperature of

Fig. 3. The temperature profile along the bed at temperature of

Three thermocouples were strategically installed at different heights along the reactor to monitor temperature profiles. The temperature measurements in the bed region, represented by the blue line in Fig. 3, indicate stable operational conditions throughout the combustion process. This operational temperature resulted in minimal agglomeration formation with more compact structures, suggesting optimal combustion conditions. The temperature stability at this operating condition can be attributed to effective heat distribution within the bed material and proper mixing between the fuel and fluidizing air. This observation aligns with findings by [15] regarding optimal temperature ranges for RDF-coal co-firing. In contrast, at higher temperatures of and , temperature distribution became unstable, and larger agglomerates formed.

SEM investigation of agglomerates. Microscopic analysis of the agglomerates revealed structures characteristic of melted and re-solidified ash, consistent with previous research on ash behavior in fluidized bed systems [16]. The formation of larger agglomerates at elevated temperatures can be attributed to the lower melting points of certain mineral constituents, as demonstrated by [17] through detailed compositional analysis. SEM-EDX analysis revealed increased concentrations of alkali metals and other low-melting-point compounds in these agglomerates, supporting the mechanism of ash fusion and subsequent agglomeration at higher temperatures [18].

Fig. 4. SEM agglomeration at different temperatures (a) , (b)

Fig. 4. SEM agglomeration at different temperatures (a) , (b)

The SEM analysis of agglomerates as seen in Fig. 4 formed at different temperatures revealed distinct morphological characteristics. At , the agglomerates exhibited relatively loose interparticle spacing and moderately smooth surface structures. Similar morphological characteristics at this temperature range were reported by [18] in their study of ash behavior during RDF-coal co-firing. As the temperature increased to , the particles became more densely packed, and the agglomerate surface structure developed increased roughness. At , the inter-particle spacing became highly compact, and the agglomerate structure displayed characteristics of molten material, consistent with findings by [19], who observed similar phase transitions in their high-temperature cofiring experiments.

The variations in agglomerate structure can be attributed to the different melting points of ash constituents. Operational control of bed temperature is essential to mitigate agglomeration in RDFcoal co-firing. As temperature increases, certain ash components undergo melting, leading to changes in particle morphology and size distribution. This phenomenon was extensively documented by [20] in their investigation of ash transformation mechanisms during co-firing processes. Their research demonstrated that the presence of alkali metals ( ) and alkaline earth metals ( ) significantly influenced the agglomeration behavior, particularly at temperatures above .

Chemical composition of agglomerate formation. Chemical composition analysis revealed distinctive patterns of agglomerate formation across different combustion temperatures as seen in Fig. 5. At , the agglomerates primarily contained , and Mg . As temperature increased to was detected in addition to the previous elements, while at was also present
alongside , and Ca . This temperature-dependent variation in elemental composition can be attributed to the different melting points of these constituents, explaining why Ca and Mn were only detected in agglomerates formed at higher temperatures. The LIBS analysis verified the presence of consistent elemental species across both spectra, except for Mg , which displayed distinct emission wavelengths attributable to differences in electronic transition pathways induced by the varying combustion temperatures and plasma excitation conditions. These findings align with research by [21] who observed similar patterns in elemental distribution across temperature ranges in RDF-coal co-firing systems.

Fig. 5. LIBS of agglomeration (a) , (b)

Fig. 5. LIBS of agglomeration (a) , (b)

Similar results were reported by [22] regarding temperature influence on agglomeration formation, particularly noting unstable temperature patterns during combustion and increased elemental diversity in agglomerates at higher temperatures. This phenomenon was further explored by [23], who documented the progressive transformation of ash compounds and their role in agglomerate formation.

The structural analysis revealed significant differences in particle spacing between agglomerates formed at versus , supporting the observations of [24]. These findings were complemented by recent research from [25], who provided detailed microscopic analysis of temperature-dependent agglomerate morphology in fluidized bed systems.

Combustion efficiency and gas formation. As shown in Fig. 6. the experimental results also demonstrated a decrease in combustion efficiency at excess air ratios of and . Optimal performance was achieved at excess air, these results correspond with findings by [9], who identified similar optimal excess air ratios for RDF-coal co-firing systems.

Fig. 6. Excess air effect to the combustion efficiency

Fig. 6. Excess air effect to the combustion efficiency

Although the optimum efficiency was observed at excess air, this condition was also associated with relatively high concentrations of flue gas emissions, as presented in Fig. 7. This apparent discrepancy indicates that optimum efficiency does not necessarily coincide with minimum emissions, since efficiency and pollutant formation are influenced by combined influence of excess air, incomplete combustion, volatile release, and mixing efficiency [30]. The trendline indicates a consistent decrease in CO emissions with increasing excess air ratios. This phenomenon can be attributed to improved combustion completeness through enhanced oxygen availability. Without sufficient excess air, many carbon particles and gaseous carbon compounds fail to achieve complete oxidation, resulting in partial combustion and increased CO formation [26]. Similar findings were reported by [27] in their comprehensive study of emission control in RDF-coal co-firing systems, where they observed a reduction in CO emissions when excess air was optimally regulated.

The relationship between excess air and CO emission reduction can be explained through the combustion stoichiometry and mixing dynamics. [28] demonstrated that increasing excess air promotes better fuel-air mixing in the combustion zone, leading to more complete carbon oxidation. The research showed that the optimal excess air ratio typically ranges between 20-25% for RDF-coal co-firing systems, beyond which diminishing returns and potential efficiency losses occur. Furthermore, [29] found that proper excess air management not only reduces CO emissions but also influences the formation of other pollutants such as NOx and unburned hydrocarbons.

Fig. 7. Gas Emission Formation

Fig. 7. Gas Emission Formation

The reduction in CO emissions with increased excess air can also be correlated with improved combustion zone temperature distribution and residence time. [11] observed that adequate excess air helps maintain optimal combustion temperatures while ensuring sufficient oxygen availability for complete carbon oxidation. Their study revealed that a well-controlled excess air ratio can reduce CO emissions by up to compared to stoichiometric conditions.

Conclusion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

This comprehensive study demonstrates the technical feasibility and optimization potential of cofiring RDF derived from MSW with coal in a laboratory-scale fluidized bed reactor. Through systematic investigation of operational parameters, several key findings have emerged that contribute to the advancement of waste-to-energy technologies.

The experimental results conclusively established that a RDF MSW to coal ratio represents the optimal mixing proportion, achieving a remarkable combustion efficiency of and minimal Specific Fuel Consumption of . This optimization successfully balances the higher volatile content of RDF with the inherent stability of coal combustion. Furthermore, the study identified that operating temperatures of and excess air provide the most favorable conditions for stable and efficient co-firing operations.

Microscopic and chemical analyses revealed critical insights into deposit formation mechanisms, particularly the role of alkali and alkaline earth metals ( , and Mg ) in agglomerate development. This understanding is crucial for predicting and mitigating potential operational challenges in industrial-scale applications. The findings regarding temperature effects on agglomeration behavior and chemical composition provide valuable guidance for managing deposit formation in commercial operations.

Particular attention should be given to the unique behavior observed at excess air, where optimum efficiency coincided with relatively high emissions, through studies on RDF homogenization, combustion dynamics, and advanced emission monitoring to support industrialscale applications.

Acknowledgments

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Directorate General of Higher Education, Research, and Technology through the Directorate of Research, Technology, and Community Service (DRTPM), Republic of Indonesia, and the Research and Community Service Institute of Udayana University under Grant No. B/519-24/UN14.14.4.A/PT.01.03/2024.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EC.13.83.pdf

SIPSN-National Waste Management Information System, Indonesia Waste Management Annual Report, Vol. 12, pp. 45-52 (2021)

Simanjuntak, A., Renewable Energy Targets and Implementation in Indonesia's Power Sector, Energy Policy, Vol. 168, pp. 112233 (2023)

Winaya, I.N.S., Susila, I.W., Experimental Study on the Effect of RDF-Coal Co-firing on NOx and SOx Emissions, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, Vol. 32, pp. 1679-1686 (2010)

Kumar, R., Singh, R.K., Singh, P., Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Potential through Refuse Derived Fuel Co-firing in Existing Coal Power Plants, Energy, Vol. 226, pp. 120396 (2021)

Wang, Y., Zhang, X., Liu, J., Economic Assessment of RDF Co-firing Implementation in Developing Countries: A Case Study Approach, Renewable Energy, Vol. 198, pp. 89-102 (2022)

Zhang, J., Li, X., Chen, H., Technical Aspects of RDF Pre-treatment and Mixing Procedures for Efficient Co-firing Operations, Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 245, pp. 107456 (2023)

Islam, M.R., Islam, M.N., Nabi, M.N., Design and Optimization of Fluidized Bed Systems for Municipal Solid Waste Combustion: A Comprehensive Review, Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 247, pp. 123-135 (2019)

Prakasa, E., Wijaya, K., Sutanto, H., Evaluation of Bed Materials in Waste-to-Energy Applications: Focus on Thermal Properties and System Stability, Renewable Energy, Vol. 185, pp. 257-268 (2022)

Liu, H., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Performance Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Co-firing in Fluidized Bed Combustion Systems: Effects of Operational Parameters, Applied Energy, Vol. 331, pp. 120375 (2023)

Chen, X., Li, H., Wang, Y., Zhang, M., Analysis of Bed Material Behavior and Agglomeration Mechanisms in Biomass-Coal Co-firing Fluidized Bed Systems, Waste Management, Vol. 135, pp. 78-89 (2022)

Park, S.J., Kim, J.H., Lee, Y.K., Heat Transfer Mechanisms and Moisture Tolerance in RDFCoal Co-firing Fluidized Bed Systems, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 382, pp. 135647 (2023)

Mulhidin, S., Rahman, A., Pratama, H., Investigation of RDF Mixing Ratios on Furnace Temperature Stability in Coal Power Plants, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 268, pp. 116033 (2022)

Arisandi, M., Putra, K., Impact of RDF Co-firing Ratios on Thermal Efficiency and Heat Rate in Large-Scale Power Plants, Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 224, pp. 119641 (2023)

Zhang, K., Wang, H., Li, M., Comparative Analysis of RDF-Coal Co-firing versus Conventional Coal Combustion Systems, Applied Energy, Vol. 334, pp. 120827 (2023)

Liu, R., Zhang, Q., Chen, X., Temperature Effects on RDF-Coal Co-firing Performance in Fluidized Bed Systems, Fuel, Vol. 334, pp. 126733 (2023)

Park, J.H., Kim, S.W., Lee, Y.K., Analysis of Ash Behavior in Fluidized Bed Co-firing Systems, Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Vol. 147, pp. 5671-5683 (2022)

Chen, X., Li, H., Wang, Y., Mineral Transformation Mechanisms in RDF-Coal Co-firing Systems, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 37, pp. 9234-9245 (2023)

Smith, J.R., Brown, K.L., Wilson, M.J., Microscopic Characterization of Agglomerates in Fluidized Bed Co-firing, Powder Technology, Vol. 409, pp. 117825 (2023)

Zhang, Y., Li, X., Chen, H., Characterization of Ash Deposits in Fluidized Bed Co-combustion of RDF and Coal, Fuel, Vol. 334, pp. 127563 (2023)

Liu, H., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Temperature-dependent Ash Transformation Mechanisms in RDF-coal Co-firing Systems, Journal of the Energy Institute, Vol. 105, pp. 236-247 (2022)

Park, S.J., Kim, J.H., Morphological Evolution of Ash Agglomerates During Biomass and RDF Co-firing, Powder Technology, Vol. 415, pp. 118723 (2023)

Morris, J.D., Zhang, Q., Li, Y., Ash Transformation During Co-firing of Biomass with Coal, Fuel Processing Technology, Vol. 171, pp. 82-93 (2018)

Wang, Y., Zhang, X., Liu, J., Chemical Transformation Mechanisms in High-temperature RDF Combustion, Energy & Fuels, Vol. 37, pp. 9234-9245 (2023)

Furuvik, N.C., Jaiswal, R., Moldestad, B., Bed Agglomeration Characteristics in Fluidized Bed Combustion of Biomass Fuels, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, Vol. 167, pp. 209219 (2022)

Zhang, L., Wang, X., Liu, H., Microscopic Analysis of Agglomerate Formation in Fluidized Bed Co-firing, Journal of the Energy Institute, Vol. 139, pp. 112-124 (2024)

Ibrahim, M., Rohmat, T.A., Analysis of Excess Air Effects on Emission Characteristics in Solid Fuel Combustion, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 245, pp. 114567 (2021)

Zhang, L., Li, X., Wang, H., Advanced Strategies for CO Emission Reduction in Co-firing Systems, Energy, Vol. 271, pp. 123456 (2023)

Liu, R., Zhang, Q., Chen, X., Optimization of Combustion Parameters for Reduced Emissions in RDF Co-firing, Fuel, Vol. 334, pp. 127563 (2023)

Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Liu, S., Comprehensive Analysis of Emission Control Strategies in RDFcoal Co-firing, Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 415, pp. 118723 (2024)

Suleimenova B, Aimbetov B, Zhakupov D, Shah D, Sarbassov Y. Co-Firing of Refuse-Derived Fuel with Ekibastuz Coal in a Bubbling Fluidized Bed Reactor: Analysis of Emissions and Ash Characteristics. Energies. 2022; 15(16):5785.

This ePub file was created using machine-generated methods and automated software to convert the source text into an ePub format and may contain formatting inconsistencies from the original version. Formatting may vary depending on the device used.