Engineering Innovations Volume 1

Edited by

Prof. Elena Gordo Odériz

Scientific.Net

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Volume 1 of
Engineering Innovations
ISSN print 2813-0995
ISSN web 2813-1002

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp -3-0

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Accepted:
2022-03-17

Online:
2022-03-25

Introduction to Engineering Innovations Series

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.-3.pdf

Editor-In-Chief

Prof. Elena Gordo Odériz

ORCID 0000-0002-2869-1363

Series Scope according THEMA Subject Categories:

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.-3.pdf

PDG Industrial applications of scientific research and technological innovation

PDN Scientific equipment, experiments and techniques

PHDY Energy

PHF Materials / States of matter

PHP Particle and high-energy physics

PHV Applied physics

PHVG Geophysics

PHVS Cryogenics

RNU Sustainability

TB Technology: general issues

TBC Engineering: general

TBN Nanotechnology

TJF Electronics engineering

TJFC Circuits and components

TJFD Electronic devices and materials

TJFM Automatic control engineering

TJFM1 Robotics

TJKD Radar technology

TJKR Radio technology

TJKS Satellite communication technology

TQSR Waste treatment and disposal

TTM Military engineering

UB Information technology: general issues

Table of Contents

Introduction to Engineering Innovations Series

Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Riza Muhida, Muhammad Riza, Hendri Dunan, Bambang Pratowo, Ahmad Cucus, Soewito Soewito, Agus Geter Edy Sutjipto, Rifki Muhida

An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

Riza Muhida, Muhammad Riza, Hendri Dunan, Bambang Pratowo, Ahmad Cucus, Soewito Soewito, Dandi Efendi, Agus Geter Edy Sutjipto

3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Michael B. De Leon, Ulysses B. Ante, Madelene Velasco Villablanca, Arvin Oliver S. Ng, Joseph Alfred V. Garcia, Fred P. Liza, Rigoberto Advincula, John Ryan C. Dizon

Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Nelson Socias Andres, Roland Manalang, Patrick Gache, Ramon Poblete, John Lester Italia, Jhensen Urganay, Ronan Servolo, Ellison Gamboa

Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

Jennalyn A. Venegas, Euan L. Maulas, Reinjhel F. Gomez, Mary Grace V. Vinzon, Giovanni D. David

Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

Miaad Al Shizawi, Vinod Kumar

Keywords Index

Authors Index

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-1/978-3-0357-3768-4

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 1-6

doi: 10.4028/p-4fjf66

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-10-18

Revised:
2021-11-05

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

Riza Muhida , Muhammad Riza , Hendri Dunan , Bambang Pratowo , Ahmad Cucus , Soewito , Agus G. E. Sutjipto , and Rifki Muhida

Universitas Bandar Lampung, Kota Bandar Lampung, Lampung 35142, Indonesia

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

Universitas Putra Indonesia Yptk Padang, Kota Padang, Sumatera Barat 25122, Indonesia

riza@ubl.ac.id, muhammadriza@ubl.ac.id, hendri.dunan@ubl.ac.id, babang.pratowo@ubl.ac.id, ahmad.cucus@ubl.ac.id, soewito@ubl.ac.id, agusgeter@ump.edu.my, rifkimuhida@gmail.com *Corresponding author

Keywords: Solar Cells, polycrystalline Silicon, Scanning Probe Microscopy, Local current, morphology, conductivity, textured substrate.

Abstract

We investigate the characteristics of polycrystalline Silicon (poly-Si) thin films for solar cells produced by very high frequency (VHF) plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition using a conductive scanning probe microscope (SPM). We measure the surface morphology and local current images are simultaneously of the poly-Si layers with a thickness, , formed on textured glass in the range of RMS based-textured substrate (a) , (b) and (c) respectively. Influences of the substrate texture on the crystal growth as well as the local current flow are discussed. Where we found that the average of local current proportional with crystallinity, where the poly-Si layer that has rich crystallinity indicated low conductivity that yield high local current.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

One of the breakthroughs in producing inexpensive and stable photovoltaic materials is the low temperature growing polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si) thin film produced by VHF plasma-enhancing chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). In several reports it was stated that poly-Si thin films prepared using PECVD fabrication showed variations in microstructural properties from mixed-crystal-amorphous states to crystalline states that reached with different crystallographic orientations. [1-5].

In addition, the microstructure of poly-Si is very heterogeneous, so it is necessary to investigate the electrical properties monoscopically. The method used is to measure local conductivity using a scanning probe microscope (SPM), where the SPM method can measure electrical quantities in nanoscale. [6, 8, 9, 11-15].

In this work, surface morphology and local current images evaluated by a conductive scanning probe microscope (SPM) technique are shown for the photovoltaic poly-Si thin films deposited by VHF-PECVD, and also, we performed the microscopic analysis of poly-Si microstructure by microstructure of crystalline volume fraction, .

Material and Method

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

We prepared the sample with structure was glass poly- . Sputtering technique has been utilize to coat the -thick transparent electrodes and the thick Ag layer. The undoped poly-Si layers for all samples are identical with those of i-layer in efficiency p-i-n solar cells [7,10]. The thicknesses of poly-Si were .

Fig. 1: Schematic Diagram of Conductive SPM

Fig. 1. Schematic Diagram of Conductive SPM

A SPM system (Park Scientific Instrument CP-R) is utilized to evaluate the topological and local current images. A schematic diagram of conductive SPM used in this study is shown in Fig. 1. A conductive cantilever made of highly doped silicon coated with Pt was used for observing the surface topography in the contact atomic force microscope (AFM) mode and the local current image simultaneously. The SPM measurements were performed in ex-situ, so that, to minimize influences of the surface oxidation after the deposition of the poly-Si layer, the sample was kept in vacuum, and the coated by for observing the current image, and then measured as soon as possible. After the second time scanning, the local current tends to markedly decrease. The dc current was obtained by applying a bias voltage of 1 V onto the electrode when the counter Ag electrode was set as ground. The crystalline volume fraction, , was evaluated from the Raman scattering spectrum was the line of ion laser.

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

Fig 2 shows the topological images of the poly-Si thin films are compared to the local current maps as a function RMS roughness of based-textured substrate (a) , (b) , (c) respectively, and the thickness of poly-Si thin films is kept 2 . The scanned area was a square and a half of which is shown. The scale bars are markers for the topological height and the current magnitude. The surface topography shows a monotonous increase in the surface roughness, i.e., the maximum height and the lateral length of the half-spherical region to be assemblages of some grains increase as d increases.

Fig. 2: Surface Morphology (left), and Local Current (right) images as a function as a function of RMS Roughness Based-substrate (a) , (b) and (c) respectively.

Fig. 2. Surface Morphology (left), and Local Current (right) images as a function as a function of RMS Roughness Based-substrate (a) , (b) and (c) respectively.

The local current maps of the samples as shown in Fig. 2, homogeneous current flow is found for the samples with RMS based-textured subtracted that shows majority high current around 200 nA occupancy the image and then decrease when RMS based-textured subtracted increase continuously.

Figure 3 summarizes (a) the RMS roughness of the poly-Si surface, (b) Crystallinity and (c) the average local current estimated from the images in Fig. 2, as a function RMS roughness of basedtextured substrate, . As found in Fig. 3 (a), with increasing , the surface roughness monotonously increases. In contrast, in the Fig 3 (c) the average current rapidly decreases by one orders of the magnitude with increasing . Also we found in Fig. 3 (b) that the crystallinity decrease as the average current rapidly decrease. Reduce the crystallinity implies that more the amorphous phase occurred in poly-Si layer, increase the amorphous phase make increasing the conductivity, this can explain the average current decrease in highly textured substrate. Another report confirms this that poly-Si that deposited in highly textured substrate occurs collisions between the columnar crystal with neighbor grains, and then creates a grain boundary and related defects [6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15]

Fig. 3: Local Average Current (a) Crystallite (b) and RMS Roughness of surface (c), as a function of RMS Roughness Based-substrate.

Fig. 3. Local Average Current (a) Crystallite (b) and RMS Roughness of surface (c), as a function of RMS Roughness Based-substrate.

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

A series investigation has been formed to find correlation between local electric current, and crystallinity on polycrystalline Silicon (poly-Si) thin films for solar cells produced by very high frequency (VHF) plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition as function of textured substrate using a conductive scanning probe microscope (SPM). This investigation revealed that conductivity of the poly-Si layer proportional with the crystallinity of poly-Si. Where poly-Si with rich of crystallinity show has low conductivity where more current can flow. Otherwise, poly-Si with poor of crystallinity show has high conductivity and difficult current can flow in poly-Si layer.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.1.pdf

Wenhao Chen, Thien N. Truong, Hieu T. Nguyen, Christian Samundsett, Sieu Pheng Phang, Daniel MacDonald, Andres Cuevas, Lang Zhou, Yimao Wan, Di Yan, "Influence of PECVD deposition temperature on phosphorus doped poly-silicon passivating contacts", Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Volume 206, (2020), Page 110348.

Jia Liu, Bin Liu, Xisheng Zhang, Xiaojia Guo, Shengzhong (Frank) Liu, Improvement of crystallinity for poly-Si thin film by negative substrate bias at low temperature, Thin Solid Films, Volume 629, (2017), Pages 90-96.

Subhashis Samanta, Debajyoti Das, Nanocrystalline silicon thin films from SiH 4 plasma diluted by H2 and He in RF-PECVD, Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, Volume 105, (2017), Pages 90-98.

Takuya Matsui, Hitoshi Sai, Adrien Bidiville, Hung-Jung Hsu, Koji Matsubara, Progress and limitations of thin-film silicon solar cells, Solar Energy, Volume 170, (2018), Pages 486-498.

Takuya Matsui, Michio Kondo, Advanced materials processing for high-efficiency thin-film silicon solar cells, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, Volume 119, (2013), Pages 156-162.

R. Muhida, T. Kawamura, T. Harano. M. Okajima, T. Toyama, H. Okamoto, S. Honda, H. Takakura, Y. Hamakawa, Crystal growth of polycrystalline silicon thin films for solar cells evaluated by scanning probe microscopy, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, Volumes 338-340, (2004), Pages 682-685.

Takuya Matsui, Riza Muhida, Tomohiro Kawamura, Toshihiko Toyama, and Hiroaki Okamoto, Microstructural dependence of electron and hole transport in low-temperature-grown polycrystalline-silicon thin-film solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, (2002), Page 4751

Toshihiko Toyama, Hiroaki Okamoto, Structural and electrical studies of plasma-deposited polycrystalline silicon thin-films for photovoltaic application, Solar Energy, Volume 80, Issue 6, (2006), Pages 658-666.

R. Muhida, A. G. E. Sutjipto, Afzeri, T. Toyama, H. Okamoto, Relationship between average slope of textured substrate and poly-Si thin film solar cells performance, Materials Research Innovations, Volume 13, Volume 13, (2009), Pages 246-248.

Takuya Matsui, Masaharu Tsukiji, Hiroyuki Saika, Toshihiko Toyama, Hiroaki Okamoto, Correlation between Microstructure and Photovoltaic Performance of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 41, Number 1R, (2002), Page 20.

Shinya Honda, Hideyuki Takakura, Yoshihiro Hamakawa, Riza Muhida, Tomohiro Kawamura, Tomokazu Harano, Toshihiko Toyama and Hiroaki Okamoto, Carrier Transport in Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells Grown on a Highly Textured Structure, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 43, (2004), Page 5955

Riza Muhida, Tomohiro Kawamura, Tomokazu Harano, Masaya Okajima, Takuya Matsui, Toshihiko Toyama, Hiroaki Okamoto, Shinya Honda, Hideyuki Takakura and Yoshihiro Hamakawa, Carrier Transport in Polycrystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Layer on Highly Textured Substrate, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 42, (2002), Page 6753

Toshihiko Toyama, Riza Muhida, Tomokazu Harano, Tsuyoshi Sugano, Masaya Okajima and Hiroaki Okamoto, Solid Phase Crystallization in Initial Growth Region of Polycrystalline Silicon Layer During Deposition at by Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 42, (2003, Page L1347

R. Muhida, T. Matsui, Takahiro Kawamura, T. Harano, T. Toyama, H. Okamoto, Shoichiro Honda, H. Takakura, Y. Hamakawa, Correlation between Microstructure and Electronic Property of Solar-Grade Poly-Si Thin-Films Deposited on Textured Substrates, Solid State Phenomena, Vol. 93, (2003) Page 115-120.

R. Muhida, Age Sutjipto, T. Matsui, T. Toyama, H. Okamoto, Measuring the Electronic Properties of Poly-Si Thin Film Solar Cells Deposited on Textured Substrate, Proc. 2006 IEEE 8th International Conference on Properties & applications of Dielectric Materials, Page 309. DOI: 10.1109/ICPADM.2006.284178

This ePub file was created using machine-generated methods and automated software to convert the source text into an ePub format and may contain formatting inconsistencies from the original version. Formatting may vary depending on the device used.

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-1/978-3-0357-3768-4

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 7-12

doi: 10.4028/p-k9zxev

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-10-15

Revised:
2021-11-05

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

Universitas Bandar Lampung, Kota Bandar Lampung, Lampung 35142, Indonesia

Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak 26300 Gambang, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia

riza@ubl.ac.id, muhammadriza@ubl.ac.id, hendri.dunan@ubl.ac.id, bambang.pratowo@ubl.ac.id, ahmad.cucus@ubl.ac.id, soewito@ubl.ac.id, dandi.17321023@student.ubl.ac.id, hagusgeter@ump.edu.my *Corresponding Author

Keywords: Solid Polymer electrolysis, electrical model, current-voltage characteristic, hydrogen production, Pt film, Ir film

Abstract

Solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) produces hydrogen and oxygen from pure water uses electrochemical reaction, and this process is believed to be the most promising and efficient way to produce hydrogen. For application and simulation, the electrical model of SPE is absolutely required, we intend to develop an electrical model. Where the model has been constructed based on the structure and characteristics of SPE. The electrical model of SPE battery like that consists of a voltage and resistance, that fulfil the equation , to ensure that this model is close to the character of the SPE, we conducted an experiment to validate it, based on the correlation analysis method we obtained those results of the experiment and results of calculation of the model have a correlation is , this meaning that the model is valid.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

Currently our attention is focused on environmental problems, global warming and the energy crisis. One way to overcome this is to produce clean energy. One of the clean energies that has promising ease of production is hydrogen. Where hydrogen can be produced using an electrolysis process that converts water into hydrogen and oxygen. In addition, Hydrogen has advantages in environmental friendliness and safety, and is considered as a universal energy carrier for the future. [1-5]

Electrolysis of water using cells with solid polymer electrolytes (SPE) is a very efficient way to produce hydrogen. And this technology has demonstrated a high degree of efficiency and higher current density capability than conventional alkaline water electrolyzes, and the use of SPE to produce hydrogen is considered a promising method for large-scale hydrogen production in the future [6-9].

Hydrogen production process using SPE through an electrolysis process by passing direct current through two electrodes. The water molecules split apart, producing oxygen at the anode (positive electrode) and hydrogen at the cathode (negative electrode).

In this work, we present an electrical model of a solid polymer electrolyte, this model constructed based on structure of cell, chemical and electrical characteristics. We show that we can evaluate the model compared with results of experiment.

Structure and Chemical Reaction of SPE

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

Figure1 show SPE that used in our laboratory, where the dimension and diagram of the SPE shown in Figure 2. The SPE is composed of a membrane, cathode and anode as shown in Fig. 2. [6], where effective area is , and operating voltage . The SPE electrolysis produces hydrogen by providing pure water to one side of polymer ion exchange film, which is put between anode and cathode. The electrochemical conversions at the anode and cathode of SPE are as follows:

Fig. 1: Solid polymer electrolyte cell

Fig. 1. Solid polymer electrolyte cell

Fig. 2: Diagram of solid polymer electrolyte cell

Fig. 2. Diagram of solid polymer electrolyte cell

Construction the Electrical Model

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

Based on Figure 2 and based on some report [7, 10] show that the structure of the SPE is similar to a battery, then we can propose a simple of electrical model as shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3: The electrical model of SPE

Fig. 3. The electrical model of SPE

Based on kirchoff voltage law, we can calculate the voltage of SPE cell of circuit in Figure 3 is as follows:

Where is SPE cell voltage, is the theoretical dissociation voltage dependent on absolute temperature of cell T in Celcius. The standard electrode potential for platinum is 1.188 V [11] and Iridium 0.748 V [12], and total of the standard electrode potential is 1.936 V at the temperature is . Where the value of is

And is the total resistance of the membrame and electodes, where the value of based on experiment is 0.00183 ohm. I is the current that flows through the SPE.
If we combinate the equation (2) and (3), we can get, the generale equation of SPE as follow:

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

The mathematical model of SPE Cell in Equation (4) the we plot in a graph as , as shown in Figure 4. Where in Fig. 4 shows independently the cell voltage as function of cell current in difference temperature. First, we can see with increase the temperature the cell voltage decrease as temperature gives coefficient negative against cell voltage. Second, we can see that with increase the cell current will make the cell voltage increase rapidly.
To make sure this model appropriate with the SPE cell, then we conduct a experiment to measure the cell voltage, the cell current and the cell temperature., to arrange this measurement, we connected the SPE cell with a variable power supply, and we measure the current and voltage of the circuit use ampere meter and voltmeter respectively.
To obtain data about change the cell temperature against the voltage of SPE cell, then we change the cell temperature at 30,60 and the relation between electrolysis voltage was measured at various currents which results are illustrated in Figure 5.

Fig. 4: Calculation the cell voltage as a function of the cell current and the cell temperature based on model equation.

Fig. 4. Calculation the cell voltage as a function of the cell current and the cell temperature based on model equation.

Fig. 5: Comparison between experiment and the model of the cell voltage as a function of the cell current and the cell temperature based on model equation.

Fig. 5. Comparison between experiment and the model of the cell voltage as a function of the cell current and the cell temperature based on model equation.

In Figure 5, shows result of experiment of a SPE cell as a function of variation the cell current and the cell temperature, as well as in same figure we plot value of the cell voltage based on the model. In this picture we can make comparison between results of the cell voltage based on experiment and the cell voltage based on model. We can compare and we can see that the calculated data of model tends to follow the results of experiment especially in high cell current. We can see that slope of the both cell voltage from experiment and the model tend to similar.

To validate the data between results of the experiment and results of calculation of the model, then we do the correlation analysis between results of the experiment and results of calculation of the model. As shown in table 1. Where we obtained that the results of the data between results of the experiment and results of calculation of the model shows the correlation is , this meaning that the model is valid.

Table 1 The correlation between results of calculation of electric model of SPE and result of experiment of SPE with variation of temperature.

No | Item 1 | Item 2 | Correlation
1 | Experiment 90 | Model 90 | 0,998828248
2 | Experiment 60 | Model 60 | 0,998277838
3 | Experiment 30 | Model 30 | 1

It feels incomplete if this SPE experiment is not equipped with its ability to produce hydrogen, then we conduct experiment to measure the productivity of hydrogen use SPE As shown in Fig. 6. The relation between the production rate of hydrogen was measured at various current and under the SPE cell temperature at and . From the figure we can conclude that the production rate of hydrogen is proportional with the SPE current and the changing of the water temperature of SPE not so changes the production rate of hydrogen.

Fig. 6: Effect of current against the production rate of hydrogen

Fig. 6. Effect of current against the production rate of hydrogen

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

An electrical model of A cell of Solid Polymer Electrolyte has been developed and validated use the data of experiment. The electrical model of SPE shows the strong correlation with data of experiment (>0.998), where we can proof that the model is appropriate with real cell of SPE. We show that the cell of SPE can produce the hydrogen where the production of hydrogen is proportional with supply current to cell. This model can be used to make design of SPE in simulation circuit.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.7.pdf

Hoseok Nam, Hyungseok Nam, Doyeon Lee, Potential of hydrogen replacement in natural-gas-powered fuel cells in Busan, South Korea based on the 2050 clean energy Master Plan of Busan Metropolitan City, Energy, Volume 221,(2021), 119783.

Aras Karapekmez, Ibrahim Dincer, Development of a multigenerational energy system for clean hydrogen generation, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 299, (2021), 126909.

Duu-HwaLee, Ching-Pin Hung, Toward a clean energy economy: With discussion on role of hydrogen sectors, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 37, Issue 20, (2012), Pages 15753-15765

Seyed Ehsan Hosseini, Mazlan Abdul Wahid, Hydrogen production from renewable and sustainable energy resources: Promising green energy carrier for clean development, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Volume 57, (2016), Pages 850-866.

Onur Oruc, Ibrahim Dincer, Development and performance assessment power generating systems using clean hydrogen,Energy, Volume 215, Part B, (2021), 119100.

Riza Muhida, Minwon Park, Mohammed Dakkak, Kenji Matsuura, Akira Tsuyoshi, Masakazu Michira, A maximum power point tracking for photovoltaic-SPE system using a maximum current controller, Solar energy materials and solar cells, Vol. 75, Issue 3-4 (2003) Page 697706.

Pyoungho Choi, Dmitri G. Bessarabov, Ravindra Datt, A simple model for solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) water electrolysis, Solid State Ionics 175, (2004), 535-539

Vincenzo Liso, Giorgio Savoia, Samuel Simon Araya, Giovanni Cinti, and Søren Knudsen Kær, Modelling and Experimental Analysis of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Water Electrolysis Cell at Different Operating Temperatures, Energies, 11, (2018), 3273

Houcheng Zhang, Guoxing Lin, Jincan Chen, Evaluation and calculation on the efficiency of a water electrolysis system for hydrogen production, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 35, Issue 20, (2010), Pages 10851-10858.

S.Sawada,T.Yamaki, T.Maeno, M.Asano, A.Suzuki, T.Terai, Y.Maekawa, Solid polymer electrolyte water electrolysis systems for hydrogen production based on our newly developed membranes, Part I: Analysis of voltage-current characteristics, Progress in Nuclear Energy, Volume 50, Issues 2-6, (2008), Pages 443-448.

Madalina Ciobanu, Jeremy P. Wilburn, Morgan L.Krim, David E.Cliffel, 1 - Fundamentals in Cynthia G. Zoski (Ed.), Handbook of Electrochemistry, Elsevier Science, Nederland, (2007), Pages 3-29

Lorena M. Ríos-Mendoza, J. Vinicio Macías-Zamora, Alberto R. Zirino-Weiss, Iridium: An option for measurement of the redox potential, Ciencias Marinas (2003), 29(4) (2003), 509520.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-1/978-3-0357-3768-4

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 13-27

doi: 10.4028/p-35niy3

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-09-13

Revised:
2021-10-22

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

Michael B. de Leon , Ulysses B. Ante , Madelene S. Velasco , Arvin Oliver S. Ng , Joseph Alfred V. Garcia , Fred P. Liza , Rigoberto C. Advincula and John Ryan C. Dizon

¹Materials Behavior Measurement and Evaluation Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Design Engineering, Andong National University, Andong, Kyungbuk, 36729, South Korea

Advanced Manufacturing Center (AMCen), MIRDC Compound, Department of Science and Technology, Gen. Santos Ave., Bicutan, Taguig City, 1631, Philippines

Metals Industry Research and Development Center, Department of Science and Technology, Gen. Santos Ave., Bicutan, Taguig City, 1631, Philippines

Deparment of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering and Architecture, Bataan Peninsula State University, City of Balanga, Bataan 2100, Philippines

STAMINA4Space Program, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines

Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Joint Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA;

Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA;

DR3AM Center, Bataan Peninsula State University, City of Balanga, Bataan 2100, Philippines

Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering and Architecture, Bataan Peninsula State University, City of Balanga, Bataan 2100, Philippines

deleonmichael_7@yahoo.com, ubante@mirdc..dost.gov.ph, msjvelasco@bpsu.edu.ph, arvinoliverng@gmail.com, javgarcia@mirdc.dost.gov.ph, fpliza@mirdc.dost.gov.ph,

Keywords: Cube satellite, CubeSat, 3D printing, high-performance polymers

Abstract

The increase in space exploration missions in recent years gave way to the development of a volume-efficient and cost-effective nanosatellite like the cube satellite (CubeSat) which can be developed and fabricated in a relatively short time. With its size and design, CubeSat parts like casings can be produced and assembled through 3D printing to produce inexpensive satellites. Research in this area is undeniably important to maximize the rapid development of CubeSats. While progress has been made, challenges remain in applying 3D printing technology in the development of CubeSats. In this paper, the current status regarding the advancement of 3D printing for CubeSat applications is discussed. First, important issues about the common materials for CubeSat and potentially 3D printing materials for CubeSats are addressed. Second, 3D printing CubeSat parts through the feasible structure design models by combining material and parameter designs are explored from a wide range of references. And also, 3D printing of cube satellite parts by DOST AMCen and STAMINA4Space has also been demonstrated. Lastly, an outlook on the future direction of the 3D printed CubeSat for the Philippines space program is provided.

1. Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

A cube satellite (CubeSat) can be very effective in terms of volume efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and short development cycle aspects. One CubeSat unit is known as 1U, with standard dimensions of and having a mass no greater than 1 kg . Through the development of new configurations, the modular unit can now be put together to form bigger artifacts (e.g., , and so on). A typical CubeSat structure made of aluminum alloy 6061-T6 or aluminum alloy 7075 is shown in Figure 1 [1]. Space Systems Development Laboratories of Stanford University and

California Polytechnic University at California, USA conceived the CubeSat standard and published specific major requirements and constraints as well as important guidelines that each CubeSat must comply with as the design progresses [2,3].

CubeSats are changing the traditional satellite launching logic. Due to its small size, several CubeSats can be launched by a single rocket or can also be a secondary payload in a rocket launch. Since the first launch into space in the early 2000s, it has made extensive applications, ranging from the testing of technologies and science missions [4], astronomy [5], and space weather [6]. Factors, such as radiation, extreme heat cycles, and low pressure are the common environmental conditions a CubeSat will encounter in space. CubeSats must also have good impact resistance to withstand the reaction forces during the launching process and space operation [7]. Therefore, suitable materials must be selected properly to meet these requirements.

Figure 1. An exploded view of the basic structure and panels with modules that comprise a typical CubeSat. Source NASA.

Figure 1. Figure 1. An exploded view of the basic structure and panels with modules that comprise a typical CubeSat. Source NASA.

The Philippines is one of the countries currently expanding its capabilities in satellite technology through its indigenous space development program under the newly established Philippine Space Agency (PhilSA) [8]. With the creation of PhilSA comes the urgent need to develop technologies for space development and utilization and keep up with other nations in terms of space science and technology. Throughout history, the Philippines ventured with several private firms in acquiring and launching its satellites. Earth satellite receiving stations, such as the Agila-1 (1987) [9], Agila-2 (1997) [10], Diwata-1 and 2, and Maya-1 (2016) [11] are among the Philippines initiatives in its space technology history. Those are microsatellites, weighing , which are either acquired from other countries or developed through foreign partners. Major challenges of the program that hindered its development locally include technological incapacity and insufficient funding. The technology used, coupled with appropriate materials needed, in building those satellites are either not currently available in the Philippines or quite expensive to be fully developed in the Philippines. A CubeSat nanosatellite, on the other hand, is an alternatively inexpensive kind of satellite. Its size and design are suitable not only for those with tighter budgets but also CubeSat parts like casings can be produced and assembled through additive manufacturing (AM) technology, commonly known as 3D printing.

The possibilities of CubeSat manufacturing using 3D printing technology have been getting attention from several researchers [12-14]. The 3D printing, which has been developed from the need
for rapid prototyping, attracts significant research in various areas due to its distinctive manufacturing technique. The 3D printing is used to describe a set of different technologies that turn a threedimensional (3D) computer-aided design (CAD) model into a layer-by-layer constructed 3D object depending on the machine and materials used. The quality of the output, however, is highly dependent on the technique employed, as well as the scale and printing parameters [15-17]. In general, these 3D printing technologies can be classified into seven categories according to ISO 17296-2 [18]. The first process is Binder Jetting that uses a binder and powder-based materials such as metals, ceramics, waxes, and composites. Second is the Material Jetting that produces objects in the same way a twodimensional inkjet printer does. Under this category are the MultiJet Modelling (MJM) and Drop-onDemand (DOD). Third is the VAT Photopolymerization which uses a tub of liquid photopolymer resin and has 3D printing technologies such as Stereolithography (SLA), Two-Photon Polymerization (TTP), Digital Light Processing (DLP), and Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP). Fourth, a Sheet Lamination utilizes metal sheets or ribbons that are welded together by ultrasonic welding. This process includes Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) and Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM). Another process is Material Extrusion, where thermoplastic is drawn through a nozzle and heated before being deposited. The most common 3D printing technology for this category is Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Another one is the Powder Bed Fusion which uses either a laser or electron beam to melt and fuse the material powder. The 3D printing technologies for this process include Selective Laser Melting (SLM) for metals and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) for polymers. Lastly, the Directed Energy Deposition (DED), a more advanced printing technology that is commonly used to repair or add material to existing components. These are the Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) and Electron Beam Manufacturing (EBM) 3D printing technologies. [17-19].

Nowadays, miniaturized parts with complex designs are accessible through 3D printing technology using less material than traditional manufacturing methods. Once used only for prototyping, it is now rapidly transforming into a production technology [20]. Recently, the Additive Manufacturing Research Laboratory (AMRel) at Bataan Peninsula State University (BPSU) was recognized by the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) as the first 3D printing research facility in the Philippines [21]. Initially, AMRel is serving the students, academe, and industry to test materials and generate 3D-printed products and relevant research projects. Now, materials, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Polylactic acid (PLA), etc., are being utilized and assessed at AMRel for practical device applications [22-26]. The Department of Science and Technology also recently established the Advanced Manufacturing Center (AMCen) which houses state-of-the-art 3D printing technologies and metrology tools.

With their focus currently emphasized on helping the Philippines develop its space programs, AMCen and AMReL are looking to explore high-performance polymer materials such as polyether ether ketone (PEEK), PAEK, ULTEM, or even metals, as 3D-printed CubeSat parts/materials. These high-performance polymers can be suitable materials for CubeSats and are known to be strong enough to survive in a hostile space environment. Through the target collaborations with concerned agencies and institutions such as UNISEC Philippines and Sustained Support for Local Space Technology & Applications Mastery, Innovation and Advancement (STAMINA4Space) program, they are targeting 3D-printed CubeSats that can be developed locally. This study will highlight the current status of 3Dprinted CubeSats and CubeSat parts, especially its development process. This includes the candidate materials for CubeSat parts 3D printing and demonstrations of 3D-printed CubeSat parts. The potential impacts, such as the cost-effectiveness, research capabilities of researchers and engineers, the establishment of new expertise, stepping up of development, future repairs, income-generating capability, including the insights of the 3D-printed CubeSat development in the Philippines, will be addressed.

2. Methodology

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

2.1 Design, Conceptualization, and Development Process

Unlike the typical or average-sized satellite which requires 5 to 15 years to develop from planning and placing it to orbit, nanosatellites, like CubeSats, require less than 8 months of development [27]. With the trends of constantly changing technologies, such as in updating technology in telecommunications, CubeSats can be very reliable in providing an optimum technology service at all times. This means that current state-of-the-art technologies can be adopted easily before losing their market-appropriate value. This also includes the detection of needs and placing them in orbit. The NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative (CSLI) [4], for instance, provided an estimated timeline of how long it may take to develop CubeSat from a concept to a functioning satellite in orbit. A CubeSat can be developed, manufactured, tested, and delivered within or less than 9 months, whereas a full development process, including launch, takes 18 to 24 months on average. Table 1 shows the typical timelines for the CubeSat development process with its respective duration according to CSLI.

Table 1. Timelines for the development process of CubeSat

Development Process | Duration
Concept Development | 1-6 months
Securing Funding | 1-12 months
Merit and Feasibility Reviews | 1-2 months
CubeSat Design | 1-6 months
Development and Submittal of Proposal in Response to CSLI Call | 3-4 months
Selection and Manifesting | 1-36 months
Mission Coordination | 9-18 months
Licensing | 4-6 months
Flight-Specific Documentation Development and Submittal | 10-12 months
Ground Station Design, Development, and Testing | 2-12 months
CubeSat Hardware Fabrication and Testing | 2-12 months
Mission Readiness Reviews | half-day
CubeSat to Dispenser Integration and Testing | 1 day
Dispenser to Launch Vehicle Integration | 1 day
Launch | 1 day
Mission Operations | variable, up to 20 years

Figure 2 delineates the development timeframes that can be overlapped. The overall time frame can vary depending on what CubeSat design goal wants to accomplish. Although there is no definite real time limit, especially in the development phase, the CubeSat concept development and design process are both substantial in deciding which components will work best for the CubeSat system. Another important factor associated with CubeSat development compared to conventional large satellites is the lower cost. These include the cheaper physical materials and parts, labor for development, and launch vehicle fuel [28]. In the span of two decades, the launch of CubeSats proved that serious science could be undertaken by such a small platform that could be constructed within reasonable cost and schedule. The MarCo CubeSat, for example, breaks the barrier in conventional nanosatellites. It is the first CubeSat to go deep into space, above the typical low circular or elliptical orbits deployment distance of 400 to 650 km [7]. From being mostly an academic demonstration, CubeSats are now being developed by multiple international consortiums of universities and space agencies. Its application expansion to commercial and government entities is currently realized. In 2016, the Philippines was one of the countries that recently collaborated in multinational efforts to launch CubeSats in space [29]. That experience opens a new beginning for local scientists and researchers in expanding the capacity of its newly created space program using local design and locally-made satellites.

Figure 2. This notional timeline shows how these phases might come together for a project [4].

Figure 2. Figure 2. This notional timeline shows how these phases might come together for a project [4].

2.2 Structural Design and Manufacturing Techniques

The satellite's mass, structural stiffness, and strength are some of the requirements in design to ensure the survivability of the instrumentation inside the CubeSat, while by reducing the weight, it is possible to increase the payload, which extends the mission goals and also reduces the launch cost [13]. Generally, CubeSat design is bound by the general constraints and requirements of stiffness and principal eigenfrequency [30]. Metals as a CubeSat structural material coupled with traditional manufacturing techniques, such as sheet metal processes, are the most common methods to meet these requirements. Its structural and mechanical parts generally represent a large percentage of its mass, and therefore, it is important to choose the proper material [14] and structural configuration to minimize mass. Topological optimization is one way to minimize the mass of the CubeSat while maintaining the structural performance of its support structure. This method also helps to minimize the predefined cost function [31].

Depending on the CubeSat design and the material selected, the installation of related subsystems, additional braces, and brackets may be required. These added frame structures are necessary for payload mounting points but definitely add more weight to the CubeSat. In addition, to secure the internal hardware inside the CubeSat, outer panels usually made of metal or fiberglass are needed. With all these added weights, the structural design process that would allow additional mass reserved for components should be considered. A report suggested that of mass should be reserved for these additional weights [32], which makes the use of lightweight materials desirable. With 3D printing, the typical way of removing material from the manufactured parts will be avoided, instead, material/part can be made layer by layer. An effective design, consisting of two identical top and bottom plates, four equal sides, and eight identical bases was proposed [12]. Figure 3 shows the 3Dprinted design assembled from multiple parts. This design is advantageous for installation and disassembly, making it also capable of carrying more payloads.

In the Philippines' initiative, the STeP-UP Project under the STAMINA4Space program, are fostering CubeSat development mastery through the nanosatellite engineering course they offer [33]. Their first batch successfully developed Maya-3 and Maya-4 (both 1U CubeSats) which were launched recently [34]. These CubeSats will be the future successors of Maya 2 CubeSat [35, 36]. Currently, the second batch of students are accomplishing the same feat as they develop their CubeSats [37].

Figure 3. A CubeSat structure design with 3D-printed multiple parts [12].

Figure 3. Figure 3. A CubeSat structure design with 3D-printed multiple parts [12].

2.3 Materials for CubeSat

At present, the number of CubeSat designed with plastic materials is very small, and new design schemes will open a new road in the manufacturing technology of CubeSat. Candidate materials that were recently used as prototypes in 3D-printed CubeSats are summarized in Table 2, with their selected material properties [14, 38]. The comparisons in Table 2 are based on specific material properties using a standard test piece. For the actual CubeSat structures frame/case, the available literature is currently based on simulations. Figure 4 summarized the structural strength of the CubeSat based on the 1U frame [39]; while quasistatic analysis results of the 2U CubeSat frame shown in Figure 5 are summarized in Table 3 [40].

In the design process, the first to be determined should be the value range of the key structural parameters, by combining the concept of system calculation, such as the design and strength checking calculations. Afterward, the design scheme of the CubeSat structure can be optimized based on the comparison between several feasible schemes. As such, aside from the metal 3D-printed CubeSat frame, utilization of ULTEM and PEEK as 3D-printed parts of the CubeSat are highly desired.

Table 2. Published material property data for selected materials [14, 38].

Material Property | FullCure720 | ABS | Watershed 11122XC | ProtoTherm12120 | Windform XT | PEEK | ULTEM | PAEK | Al-7075-T6 | Al-6061-T6
Tensile Strength (MPa) | 50-65 | 34.5 | 47.1-53.6 | 77.2 | 77.85 | 95 | 71.6 | 160 | 572 | 310
Modulus (MPa) | 2000-3000 | 2482 | 2650-2880 | 3247 | 7320 | 6580 | 2220 | 1120 | 7170 | 6890
Tensile Elongation (%) | 15-25 | 50 | 3.3-3.5 | 4.5 | 2.6 | 3.5 | 5.9 | 2.53 | 11 | 17
Flexural Strength (MPa) | 80-110 | 65.5 | 63.1-74.2 | 103 | 131.52 | 160 |  | 240 | - | -
Flexural Modulus (MPa) | 2700-3300 | 2620 | 2040-2370 | 3061 | 6248.5 | 6810 | 2500 | 1020 | - | -
IZOD (J/m) | 20-30 | - | 0.2-0.3 | 0.016 | - | 430 (unnotched) | 107 (notched) | 786 (unnotched) | - | -
Heat Deflection (°C) | 45-50 (.45 MPa) | - | 45.9-54.5 (.46 MPa) | 126.2 (.46 MPa) | 175.4 (1.82 MPa) | 193 (1.8 MPa) | 160 (1.8 MPa) | 268 (1.8 (MPa) | - | -
Water Absorption (%) | 15-22 | - | 0.35 | 0.24 | - | - | - | 0.122 | - | -
Tg (°C) | 48-60 | 104 | 39-46 | 111 | - | - | - | - | - | -
Shore Hardness (D) | 83-86 | 105 | - | 86.7 | - | - | - | - | - | -
Rockwell Hardness (M) | 73-76 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 102 | 87 | 107
Polymerized Density (g/cm³) | 1.18-1.19 | 1.04 | 1.12 | 1.15 | 1.101 | 1.37 | - | 1.52 | 2.81 | 2.7
Aging Temperature (°C) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 121 | 160
Fatigue strength (MPa) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 159 | 96.5

Figure 4. Simulation of CubeSat structural strength integrity based on ABS and Al 6061 materials [39].

Figure 4. Figure 4. Simulation of CubeSat structural strength integrity based on ABS and Al 6061 materials [39].

Figure 5. Displacement distribution along the x -axis of 3D-printed 2U CubeSat [40].

Figure 5. Figure 5. Displacement distribution along the x -axis of 3D-printed 2U CubeSat [40].

Table 3. Quasistatic analysis results of 3D-printed 2U CubeSat using different materials [40].

| x-axis | y-axis | z-axis
Displacement (mm) | 0.031 | 0.034 | 0.00372
STRESS—CFRP (max principal) (MPa) | 6.95 | 6.55 | 1.18
STRESS—ALUM (von Mises) (MPa) | 15.2 | 11.6 | 25.6
STRESS—PCBs (MPa) | 4.4 | 4.7 | 2.06
STRESS—spacers (MPa) | 3.8 | 4 | 1.5
STRAIN | 6.73 × 10⁻⁵ | 6.89 × 10⁻⁵ | 7.39 × 10⁻⁶

2.4 3D printing materials for CubeSat

The 3D printing process usually starts with a 3D model that could either be made using computeraided design (CAD) software or by 3D scanning an object. The 3D model will then be converted to a compatible file format such as .STL or .OBJ. AMF, short for Additive Manufacturing File format, is also being used [41]. In the .STL file format, the shape of the objects can be simulated using triangular facets [42]. The .STL file is then processed using a slicing software/AM system (usually dedicated to a specific 3D printer), which slices the model in several hundred or thousands of layers. In the slicing software, different parameters such as printing speed, layer height (resolution), infill, are being optimized. Additionally, the slicing software also converts the .STL file into the appropriate file type, which is specific to a particular 3D printer (G-code) [43]. The sliced file (G-code) will then be transferred to the 3D printer, and the 3D printer will then build the part. After printing, the part will then be removed and post-processed, and will then be prepared for application [41].

As earlier mentioned, there are several 3D printing technologies available in the market and are divided into several categories [19, 44-47]. The most commonly used 3D printers are extrusionbased Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) also known as fused filament fabrication (FFF), which uses a thermoplastic filament as its printing material. In FFF, the printer prints a 3D object by extruding a molten thermoplastic material following the sliced 3D model [44, 48]. The molten material is positioned layer upon layer until the 3D object/part is created. Stratasys owns the patent for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) in 1989 [49]. Common materials being used are polylactic acid (PLA), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate (PC), and recently high-performance polymers such as PEEK [50]. This printing technique is relatively fast and cheap but requires support structures especially for complex shapes [19, 44, 51]. The basic components of a typical FFF/FDM printer include the build platform, a heated extrusion nozzle, and the filament material.

The 3D printing technologies presented here provide insights representing almost all 3D printing processes used for rapid prototyping. Specifically, representative 3D printing technologies using different printing materials (i.e., solid-based, powder-based, and liquid-based) have been discussed. However, although 3D printing of various polymers has been somewhat utilized elsewhere, surprisingly, studies on 3D printed PEEK/PAEK/ULTEM polymers are lacking. In particular, studies related to gamma radiation of these high-performance polymers are still far from being fully understood. Basically, the material properties of most polymers are highly vulnerable to unwanted changes if exposed to radiation. In most cases, gamma radiation effects on mechanical strength degradation are common in real applications. The 3D printed components in satellites and spacecraft can be exposed to a specific range of radiation rates deemed as gamma irradiation [52,53]. The pore structures or print patterns modified using the printer parameter setting in 3D-printed polymers can affect the efficiency of oxygen diffusion inside the material [54]. Worth noting is that oxygen diffusion plays an important part in radiation-induced reactions. FDM-printed polymers with oxygen present in porous, for instance, might alter the reactions of the radicals generated by radiation, losing its ductility, and making it brittle [55]. The resulting embrittlement can widely affect the ageing and structural damage, for it alters the available diffusion pathways for the oxygen diffusion to take place [56]. With these, an in-depth understanding of the effects of gamma irradiation on the mechanical properties of 3D printed PEEK/PAEK/ULTEM polymers has been recognized as an important part of designing and characterization. Therefore, based on these, optimized materials and printing technology suitable for the development of the CubeSat part should be identified and evaluated, accordingly.

3. Demonstration of 3D Printing of CubeSat Parts

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

The DOST's AMCen and BPSU's AMRel are actively participating in the advancement of 3D printing technology in the Philippines and are likely to expand their continuous innovations to 3D printing of CubeSat using metals and other high-performance polymer materials such as PEEK, PAEK, ULTEM. These are well-known materials suitable in hostile space environments, therefore suitable for CubeSat. Unfortunately, the manufacturing of CubeSat parts and structures through 3D
printing is not yet fully explored in the Philippines, except for a Joint Research Agreement between PHL-50 and MIRDC's RAPPID-ADMATEC under the STAMINA4Space program started in 2019, which are currently working to develop optimized CubeSat components through 3D printing [57]. These include satellite parts, such as the frame, star tracker camera baffle, computing unit enclosures, and deployment mechanisms. Design optimizations using different 3D printing software for fabrication and material post-processing were considered because of 3D printing flexibility and customizability features. Furthermore, modeling and simulation studies on the said CubeSat components are being conducted using various software. Al 6061-T6 and Stainless steel 316 metals were utilized to print the listed components using a Direct Metal Laser Sintering Metal Printer. These metals are well known for their toughness and durability, capable of withstanding maximum stresses up to 590 MPa and 460 MPa , respectively. The materials were also selected due to their excellent thermomechanical properties, such as high corrosion resistance, good heat capacities, and low densities. In addition, to control the desired mechanical properties and reduce defects induced during printing, post-processing such as heat treatment, stress relief, solution annealing, and ageing are considered.

Aside from metals, thermoplastics like PEEK and polyetherimide (PEI) were printed using a FFF printer fed for the camera baffles and some parts of the deployment mechanism. These thermoplastics offer remarkable chemical resistance and excellent mechanical properties even at elevated temperatures. Aside from its good corrosion resistance and excellent thermomechanical properties, PEEK was selected mainly because of its self-lubricating property, which is ideal for sliding applications such as deployable systems. Similar to metals, heat treatment after the 3D printing process is required for thermoplastic materials. Figure 6 represents some of the resulting products made of PEEK, before and after the annealing process. This process was done by placing the PEEK sample in an oven with for 1 hour then adjusted to for another 2 hours and left the sample inside the oven until it reached . It can be observed that before the annealing process, PEEK had an original light brown color and the printed layers were visible. After the annealing, the color of the PEEK sample became darker and the printed layers were somewhat unnoticeable. The annealed PEEK sample was also found to be harder and more durable than untreated samples. This process is necessary to maintain its mechanical strength and modify its mechanical properties, depending on the application, by varying the time and temperature in the heat treatment process.

Figure 6. Sample images of 3D printed CubeSat components using PEEK (a) before and (b) after heat treatment.

Figure 6. Figure 6. Sample images of 3D printed CubeSat components using PEEK (a) before and (b) after heat treatment.

Unfortunately, 3D printing of thermoplastics is still costly and trivial relative to regular plastics. One of the solutions is to design, simulate, and 3D print parts made of plastic as prototypes. This is a useful solution and cost-effective to check whether the models are printable and functional. Figure 7 (a) shows the 3D-printed part made of draft resin, while a deformity in one of the parts which requires minor modifications in the design and printer setting is shown in Figure 7 (b).

Figure 7. (a) 3D printed components for the deployment mechanisms using draft resin. (b) Deformed part, requiring minor modifications in the design and printer settings.

Figure 7. Figure 7. (a) 3D printed components for the deployment mechanisms using draft resin. (b) Deformed part, requiring minor modifications in the design and printer settings.

With the 3D-printed components made of draft resins, necessary changes in the design and gauge whether design functionality is satisfied before pushing through with the final fabrication stage can be adjusted. Figures 8 (a) and (b) show the assembly and functional testing of 3D-printed components. The 3D printed components were manually assembled with the other mating mechanical parts and actuated to assess and check if they will follow the desired motion and serve their function. Doing so saves time and lessens the wastage of expensive materials.

Figure 8. Images of 3D-printed resin, taken (a) during assembly and (b) during functional testing.

Figure 8. Figure 8. Images of 3D-printed resin, taken (a) during assembly and (b) during functional testing.

4. Insights and Future Perspectives of 3D Printing CubeSat Applications in the Philippines

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

Considering the demands and R&D needs for the design and manufacturing of CubeSat, BPSU is going in the right direction, by focusing on providing technological solutions to researchers, experts, and specialists. Expected outputs of their endeavor include the development of new products, processes, and business models. Outcomes and impacts include the capability to conduct R&D using high-tech equipment and process, thereby being able to continuously generate technologies and
products. With the outcomes, test protocols under international standards will be identified. In addition, new protocols or test considerations can be suggested to the international community. These include standardization of materials formulation, manufacturing process, testing procedures, and other standardization efforts.

3D printing is a very hot technology right now, and it is envisioned that most of the colleges/universities will purchase 3D printers in the next few years for prototyping. Even more, it will be very important for 3D printer users to know how to minimize waste (common polymers as well as high-performance polymers) in their operation. In 3D printing, there is at least of waste materials due to the raft and support materials. Finding ways to minimize the waste, as well as develop ways to reuse and recycle it, is necessary. This should be addressed by developing technologies to recycle and reuse waste materials. Procedures and guidelines for the reuse/recycling of 3D printing waste materials (PEEK, metals, etc.) should be developed. The solutions should also be applicable in all institutions as well as by the industry employing these manufacturing processes. Standardization of procedures on re-using and recycling of wastes across the country could be developed and a circular economy should be promoted.

The 3D printing of space-grade polymer/metal parts and characterization of such parts is a relatively new research topic. Very few research groups are doing research activities on these two combined topics. This includes optimized printability of materials, chemical and physical stability of materials against vacuum and ionizing radiations. 3D printing and metrology tools, standardized testing methods, and pre-launched checklist protocols. Like the automotive and aerospace industry, parameters such as strength to weight ratio in design and materials will be important. It will especially be beneficial to involve different institutions to produce quality research outputs to be used by the PhilSA. This project will hone the research skills and capabilities of researchers and engineers and will provide opportunities for them to undertake and participate in delivering place-specific knowledge to their field and industry. The technologies that can be provided by 3D printing will lead the way in seeking new knowledge in the use of 3D printing and advanced manufacturing technologies for CubeSats and other space-related applications. Also, it will create a pool of experts (scientists, engineers, and faculty researchers) that are knowledgeable and skilled in additive manufacturing as well as space and aerospace technologies. Collaborations with local and international partners regarding 3D printing of CubeSat parts and aerospace device parts are important.

The economic impact of this endeavor is indirect. Nevertheless, the outcome of the project will be an enhanced R&D capability in terms of materials assessment and device design. It is expected that there will be a substantial economic impact because of the localization of R&D and testing of space-grade materials. It will come in terms of savings, or potential business in the future. For BPSU, 3D-printed CubeSat can be packaged with the electronic component being developed by Stamin4Space and other local CubeSat manufacturers. They can start and develop a market for CubeSat kits for industry or academic institutions

With the active participation of several institutions in the field of Additive Manufacturing Research and Development, we could expect several forms of impact socially and economically, as material innovation would broaden its applications in various industries aside from space-related technologies. As the Philippines embarks on this journey in space technology, parts/components manufacturing will continue forever and is deemed to be very important in its journey towards developing and manufacturing its materials for the needs of its space program.

The combination of CubeSat and 3D printing technology will open more possibilities in lightweight and reliable multiple scientific and industrial space applications. The study highlighted here, which includes the candidate materials for CubeSat parts 3D printing and demonstrations of 3D-printed CubeSat parts, will support the development of CubeSat as a low-cost mode of space exploration. Currently, the manufacturing of CubeSat parts and structures through 3D printing is not yet fully explored in the Philippines. Both batches that worked on Maya 3 and Maya 4 structural design development can provide a good reference design for assessment and improvement of 3Dprinted CubeSats. In the future, working alongside the next batches will be beneficial for both
projects, as STeP-UP can have their structural parts manufactured, and BPSU can better verify their 3D printed outputs in a real satellite development environment. Although the STAMINA4Space program research and outputs will be shared with PhilSa, it is worth noting that it will not be producing any device/part for PhilSa. Nevertheless, both PhilSA and STAMINA4Space program made clear that they want CubeSat development to proliferate with academic communities specifically with the youth: high school STEM students, university students, or even opening the outputs of this technology to the whole Philippines (e.g., science HS, university consortiums such as UNISEC). These kinds of projects will support the "Build, Build, Build in Space" (B3iS) flagship program of PhilSA in developing a local space industrial base. This will also open opportunities for the more direct participation of Filipino engineers and scientists and may promote the country's selfreliance capabilities through indigenous scientific and technological capacity development of our local space industry.

5. Summary

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

This short review discussed the current status of the application of 3D printing for CubeSats. This study also provided insights into the 3D printing materials being used for CubeSat applications. The 3D printing of CubeSat parts by DOST AMCen and STAMINA4Space has also been demonstrated in the latter part of this paper. Some future perspectives have also been provided considering the Philippine setting.

Ackowledgments

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.13.pdf

The authors would like to thank the support of the Department of Science and Technology of the Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD), the Research and Development Office of the Bataan Peninsula State University (BPSU), and the Metals Industry Research and Development Center Advanced Manufacturing Center (MIRDC-AMCen) of DOST.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 29-38

doi: 10.4028/p-gu9d87

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-09-01

Revised:
2021-10-19

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

Nelson S. Andres , Roland Manalang , Patrick Gache , Ramon Poblete , John Lester Italia , Jhensen Urganay , Ronan Servolo , Ellison Gamboa

Bataan Peninsula State University, City of Balanga 2100, Bataan, Philippines

nelsonsandres@yahoo.com, rsmanalang@bpsu.edu.ph, pgache@bpsu.edu.ph, rpoblete@bpsu.edu.ph, ejlitalia@bpsu.edu.ph, jhensenurganay@yahoo.com, elgamboa@bpsu.edu.ph

Keywords: Pico-hydro, 3D Printing, ABS, Generator, Turbine

Abstract

Most farmers in Bataan, Philippines are using diesel pump system to irrigate their crops. In this system, water is pumped out continuously during cropping period and one may think that the water is being squandered because the diesel pump operates for about eight to ten hours a day. Furthermore, with the high price of Diesel nowadays, the irrigation system seems to be a burden to most crop farmers. The proponents thought of applying the pico-hydroelectric generation technology to add value to the system. Specifically in this study, the proponents aimed to develop a picohydroelectric generator with 3D-printed Pelton turbine to be installed in diesel pump irrigation system, and be able to harness the energy from the flowing water and convert it into useful electric energy which can be used for lighting and for charging electronic gadgets.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

In Bataan Province, one of the prime livelihood is farming of palay or rice at any stage before husking. Bataan, being part of Central Luzon Region, is one of the biggest palay producers in the Philippines. According to Figure 1, the percent share of Central Luzon on Palay production is about for the two quarters in 2018. In 2019, the percent share of Central Luzon on Palay production decreases to .

Fig. 1. Volume of Palay Production by Region, Philippines (January - June 2018)

Fig. 1. Volume of Palay Production by Region, Philippines (January - June 2018)

It is surveyed that most farmers in Bataan were using diesel pump system to irrigate their crops. Figure 2 depicts a typical diesel pump irrigation system which farmers are using wherein water is drawn out from water bed using diesel-fed water pump. In this irrigation system, the water is basically free flowing throughout the cropping season.

Fig. 2. Typical Diesel Water Pump Irrigation System in Bataan

Fig. 2. Typical Diesel Water Pump Irrigation System in Bataan

Based on assessment, pico-hydroelectric generators can be a potential source of electricity for this application. It is a proven electricity generation method with a maximum electric output of five kilowatts. These generators have proven to be useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. Pico-hydro setups typically are run-of-stream which means only small weirs or pipes to divert the flow through the turbine are needed and reservoir of water is not needed [1].

The proponents thought of converting this squandered water energy from diesel pump irrigation system of Palay Farmers in Bataan, into useful kinetic energy to propel a Pico-scale hydroelectric system Specifically, the project study aims to generate renewable electricity from the diesel pump irrigation systems to be used to minimize or somehow lower the electricity consumption of users by providing free electricity to light their houses at night. Moreover, it can be of great help as a charging station during long power outages [2].

To be able to generate more power, the proponents opted to maximize the speed by making the propeller made of durable plastic. It is hypothesized that the metal propeller of usual pico-hydro electric generator shall be substituted with 3D printed durable plastic. So that the propeller would be light and easy to turn by water, hence, it can drive the generator more rapidly [3]. 3D printing technology, also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating a three-dimensional object layer-by-layer using a computer created design. 3D printing is an additive process whereby layers of material are built up to create a 3D part. 3D printing is also perfectly suited to the creation of complex, modified items, making it ideal for rapid prototyping.

Literature Review

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

Portland in Oregon now generates electricity from turbines installed in city water pipes. Portland has replaced a section of its existing water supply network with Lucid Energy pipes as shown in Figure 3 containing four forty-two-inch turbines. As water flows through the pipes, the turbines spin and
power attached generators, which then feed energy back into the city's electrical grid. It is known as the Conduit 3 Hydroelectric Project, Portland's new clean energy source is scheduled to be up and running at full capacity in March 2019.

Fig. 3. Lucid Energy Pipes

Fig. 3. Lucid Energy Pipes

Fig. 4. Micro Hydro Generator

Fig. 4. Micro Hydro Generator

In order to be cost and energy effective, Portland's new power generators were installed in pipes where water flows downhill, without having to be pumped, as the energy necessary to pump the water would negate the subsequent energy gleaned. However, it is noted that the system does more than simply provide electricity: It can monitor both the overall condition of a city's water supply network as well as assess the drinking quality of the water flowing through it. This study helps the proponents on how harness of some excess pressure to generate environmentally - friendly hydropower without disrupting water delivery, with the use of turbines installed inside of water pipelines, as the water flows through the turbine spin converting the excess pressure into a renewable energy. The design does not harm ecosystem and it can be operated day and night, rain or shine and 24/7, the idea was efficient and reliable.

Depicted in Figure 4 is the Micro Hydro generator which generates DC power from a source such as a stream running down a hillside. Water is channeled into a pipeline with enough drop (head) to build up sufficient pressure. It can also be used with water systems that are under pressure like the water in city supplies.

The water passes through a small nozzle where it gives up pressure for velocity. The water then passes through the turbine runner which converts the energy in the water into shaft power and spins the generator. This electric power is first alternating current (AC) that is converted into direct current (DC) with a device called a rectifier. The power then goes to the output terminals (binding posts) where it is available to charge batteries or use directly with suitable appliances.

Both Lucid Energy pipes and Micro Hydro Generators (MHG) are the inspirations behind this study. Lucid Energy pipes are macro hydro generator while MHG is the opposite extreme. The concept of pipes and the construction of MHG are incorporated to come with a pico-hydroelectric generator suited for typical diesel water pump used by farmers in irrigating their crops.

Methodology

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

The common process of generating electricity using Pico-hydro generation is shown in Figure 5. The main components of this system are water, inlet, penstock, turbines, drive system, generator, rectifier, battery, inverter and load are required.

Fig. 5. Operation of Pico-Hydroelectric System

Fig. 5. Operation of Pico-Hydroelectric System

Typical to prototyping, the study has gone through design, fabrication and assembly processes. The case of the prototype was patterned to the micro hydro generator which was discussed in the related literature. A small hole in the inlet pipe was mounted into the case to create a significant pressure. This was accomplished by welding the inlet pipe to the fabricated case, which was also done with water outlet. The turbine propeller was then placed in the case where it can be connected to the generator shaft. The turbine propeller has a 1 cm air gap between the casing and the propeller blades. The turbine propeller was made sure not to collide with the casing's side walls. The generator then was securely fastened to the casing with screws to avoid any movement or vibration in the device. The DC charger, battery, and inverter were all properly installed where they needed to be protected from getting wet, and the alternator was set up in accordance to the system design.

Testing of prototype were conducted in an hourly intervals during daytime of one cropping season. Researchers were able to accomplished ten trials for two a half months and most of them during sunny days. The testing set-up is depicted in Figure 6. The prototype was connected to a 6 HP diesel water pump, which is used to irrigate one-hectare farm land. A 3-inch diameter PVC pipe was used to connect the prototype to the diesel water pump. A one-meter head was also provided in the set up to maximize the power output. The diesel pump was operated and the measurement of needed data using various equipment was conducted. The set-up for the measurement of speed is shown in Figure 7.

Fig. 6. Installed Pico Hydro Electric Generator

Fig. 6. Installed Pico Hydro Electric Generator

Fig. 7. Speed Measurement

Fig. 7. Speed Measurement

The measurement of the current flowing from the generator to the load was done using a multi tester. The probes of the tester were placed in series between the two terminals where generator DC current can be measured. Another but easier method used was by using clamp ammeter. The conductor connecting the inverter and the loads were clamped to measure the AC current that flows through the loads as shown in Figure 8.

The measurement of the voltage induced by the alternator was done using a multi tester. The probes of the tester were placed in parallel between the two terminals where alternator DC voltage can be measured and also parallel to the loads to measure the AC voltage.

Fig. 8. Current Measurement

Fig. 8. Current Measurement

3D Printed Turbine

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

Figure 9 depicts the 3D printed Pelton turbine which was assembled or glued together and then painted to look more presentable. The Anycubic Mega S 3D printer used to print the turbine propeller is shown in Figure 10, which is owned by BPSU-AMREL. The material used was acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The printing layer Height was set to about 0.2 mm and infill. The printing took 8 hours to finish per part.

Fig. 9. Assembled 3D printed Turbine

Fig. 9. Assembled 3D printed Turbine

ABS has chemical formula of n and is produced by emulsion or continuous mass technique. The natural material is an opaque ivory color and is readily colored with pigments or dyes. The chemical properties of ABS are high resistance to diluted acid and alkalis, moderate resistance to aliphatic hydrocarbons, poor resistance to aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated Hydrocarbons and alcohols [4].

ABS also shows excellent mechanical properties like hardness and toughness in nature and thus has good impact strength. Its flexibility stiffness is about 1.6 to 2.4 GPa while the tensile yield strength and toughness at low temperature are 29.6 to 48 MPa and 20 to respectively. The mentioned mechanical properties of ABS manifest viability as substitute to metal in terms of the water pressure
impact and rotational applications. ABS has also high dielectric strength and resistivity. Its dielectric strength is about while the resistivity is ranging from 14 to . This property of ABS indicates the amount of voltage required to reach electrical breakdown and become electrically conductive.

Fig. 10. Printing of the Turbine

Fig. 10. Printing of the Turbine

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

The Pico-hydroelectric generator was tested to determine the mechanical parameters such as torque and speed, which are the two most critical factors to consider when evaluating the mechanical power [5].

Table 1. Volume Flow Rate Measurement

Trial | INTERVAL | AREA(m²) | VELOCITY(m/s) | VOLUME FLOW RATE (m3/s)
1 | 9:00AM-10:00AM | 0.00811 | 1.110m/s | 0.009
2 | 10:00AM-11:00AM | 0.00811 | 1.356m/s | 0.011
3 | 11:00AM-12:00PM | 0.00811 | 1.603m/s | 0.013
4 | 12:00PM-1:00PM | 0.00811 | 1.850m/s | 0.015
5 | 1:00PM-2:00PM | 0.00811 | 1.850m/s | 0.015
6 | 2:00PM-3:00PM | 0.00811 | 1.480m/s | 0.012

In the diesel pump site, the available water flow rate was also measured. Table 1 shows that the flow rate varies from trial to trial among the six trials conducted on a specific day. It is learned that the flow rate increases from morning up to 2:00 PM and then slightly decreases from 2:00 PM onwards.

Table 2 shows the tabulated results of the measured alternator speed during the testing. The researchers performed six trials in different times of the day. It can be seen from the results that the alternator speed ranges from 475.8 rpm to 573.4 rpm based on the readings of a tachometer while the frequencies fall in the range of 52 to 57 Hz .

Table 2. Generator Speed and Frequency Analysis

TRIAL | INTERVAL | NO LOAD SPEED (RPM) | FULL-LOAD SPEED (RPM) | POLES | FREQUENCY
1 | 9:00AM-10:00 AM | 475.8 | 470.8 | 12 | 52
2 | 10:00AM-11:00 AM | 498.2 | 493.2 | 12 | 54
3 | 11:00-12:00 PM | 533.7 | 528.7 | 12 | 56
4 | 12:00PM-1:00 PM | 573.4 | 568.4 | 12 | 57
5 | 1:00PM-2:00 PM | 573.4 | 568.4 | 12 | 57
6 | 2:00PM-3:00 PM | 513.5 | 508.5 | 12 | 55

Fig. 11. Voltage Output

Fig. 11. Voltage Output

In one of the conducted tests, Figure 11 shows the voltage generation at different times of the day. The output voltages of the developed pico-hydro electric generator with 3D printed propeller were ranging from 10.7 V up to 11.9 V at speed 470 rpm to 568 rpm . In ten trials during one cropping period, the maximum voltage generation always occurred at 11 AM to 2 PM when the water flow rate and turbine speed were high. Generated voltage was DC because the alternator used and it was inverted to AC to be able to supply AC lighting loads.

Fig. 12. Load Current

Fig. 12. Load Current

While the output currents of the prototype, as depicted in Figure 12 were ranging from 1.85 amperes up to 2.01 amperes at same speed range of 470 rpm to 568 rpm . Currents continually increased from 9:00 AM to 2 PM but drooped down from 2:00PM to 5:00 PM. This was also when the water flow rate and turbine speed were high.

Fig. 13. Power Output

Fig. 13. Power Output

As a product of voltage and current, the output power in Figure 13 were ranging from 396 watts up to 438 watts at same of speed 470 rpm to 568 rpm . The graphical characteristics of the power generation in a day manifested instability and dependence to water flow rate and speed of rotation, therefore battery maybe used as storage for reliability.

Based from the results, the prototype can only generate small power suited for small electrical loads such as lighting. This can be of used to those farmers who want to light up their houses during night time by charging the battery using the prototype. The 250 AH battery is expected to be fully charged in 13 hours and can be used reliably for 8 hours lighting system during nighttime for a porch or patio.

Conclusion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

The developed Pico Hydroelectric generator with 3D printed propeller was capable of producing 350 W to 400 W output power which can be used in lighting loads. In this study, the prototype was successfully customized to the diesel pump irrigation system used by Palay Farmers in Samal, Bataan.

The 3D printed Pelton type propeller was made useful as substitute to metal propeller. Plastic propeller that is sturdy, light weight and more economical than metal is one of the highlights of this study.

The over-all cost of the pico-hydro generator can be further minimized by considering other parts such as inlet and outlet pipes to be 3D printed plastic. Therefore, with fast 3D printing production, the ROI can also be shortened further.

However, the study needs further tests such as fatigue test on the 3D printed turbine to account interfacial mechanical weakness between layers as well as durability and to conclude the values of other mechanical properties based on its actual shape, placement and operational movements.

Acknowledgment

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

The 3d printers and 3d printing materials used in this study were provided by BPSU's Additive Manufacturing Research Laboratory (AMReL). AMReL is a joint project of the Department of Science and Technology - Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD) and the Bataan Peninsula State University (BPSU). The authors would like to thank Prof. John Ryan C. Dizon and Mr. Ray Noel M. Delda for assistance in 3 d printing of the turbine.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.29.pdf

Clare S.G. Dela Rosa, et.al., "Design and Development of a Pico-hydro Pelton Turbine Bucket Using Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Bottles", 2018

Florencia Palis, et. al., "A Farmer-Participatory Approach in the Adaptation and Adoption of Controlled Irrigation for Saving Water: A Case Study in Canarem, Victoria, Tarlac, Philippines", 2004.

Nelson Andres and Roland Manalang, "Development of Pico-Hydro Electric Generator for the Free Flowing Water System in BPSU Abucay Campus", 2019

? Fb clid=IwAR0sbRiqWhgXSExTUiAOWOXemN6c_6Mito1_5aSmWeB5ATs9y2o_k9dRaD8

H. Zainuddin, ., "Design and Development of Pico-hydro Generation System for Energy Storage Using Consuming Water Distributed to Houses", 2009

Roshan Varghese Rajan, "Pico-Hydro Electric Power Generation from Residential Water Tank", India: Sadguro Publications, 2018

Leonel L. Pabilona1, "Design and Development of Pico Hydro Power Test," International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET), p. 279, 2017.

Brian Jumaquio Tuazon, Michaela Tayag Espino, and John Ryan Cortez Dizon, "Investigation on the Effects of Acetone Vapor-Polishing to Fracture Behavior of ABS Printed Materials at Different Operating Temperature", Materials Science Forum, 2020, ISSN: 1662-9752, Vol. 1005, pp 141-149.

John Ryan C. Dizon, Qiyi Chen, Alejandro H. Espera, Jr., Rigoberto C. Advincula, "Mechanical Characterization of 3D-Printed Polymers", 2018, Additive Manufacturing, Vol. 20, pp. 44-67.

Ray Noel M. Delda, Brian J. Tuazon, John Ryan C. Dizon, "Assessment of Interfacial Adhesion of Adhesively Bonded 3D - Printed Thermoplastics", Materials Science Forum, 2020, ISSN: 16629752, Vol. 1005, pp 157-165.

This ePub file was created using machine-generated methods and automated software to convert the source text into an ePub format and may contain formatting inconsistencies from the original version. Formatting may vary depending on the device used.

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-1/978-3-0357-3768-4

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 39-51

doi: 10.4028/p-6q6pt5

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-08-05

Revised:
2021-10-12

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.39.pdf

Jennalyn A. Venegas , Euan L. Maulas , Reinjhel F. Gomez , Mary Grace V. Vinzon and Giovanni D. David

¹Bataan National High School - Senior High School, Roman Superhighway, City of Balanga, Bataan, 2100, Philippines

Bataan National High School - Junior High School, Roman Superhighway, City of Balanga, Bataan, 2100, Philippines

ªjennalynvenegas12@gmail.com, euanlmaulas@gmail.com, gomezmrein13@gmail.com, mary.velasco004@deped.gov.ph, giovanni.david@deped.gov.ph

Keywords: Additive manufacturing; quadcopter; 3D-printed drone; agriculture; Zea mays.

Abstract

This study addresses the labor crisis that the agriculture industry faces and the need for an alternative planting technology for farmers. Ardufarmer is a seed sowing machine that combines the emerging additive manufacturing technology and quadcopter robotics to form an alternative broadcast farming method that efficiently covers a given land area in the least amount of time through planting toolsets: seed reservoir, dispenser valve, drill, Arduino, and GPS programming. The quadcopter development includes designing the drone fuselage and seed dispenser, three-dimensional printing (3D printing) the parts under different settings, simulation and analysis of 3D-printed parts, and programming the Arduino board and GPS mechanism. The drone was tested in different land areas in terms of time spent. The study shows that the planting rate of the drone is more efficient at 36.41 seconds in 50 square meters than manual planting at 144 seconds in 50 square meters. The Ardufarmer was tested in terms of height, time spent, and spreading diameter in different land areas. The device can effectively sow seeds in 12 seconds per square meter. The study also shows that the minimum percentage relative time saving of the proposed drone technology is .

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.39.pdf

About a billion people over the world experience the impacts of food insufficiency. Half of the agricultural sector involves crop production. Thus, farmers are challenged with improving agricultural productivity and planting efficiency despite the high-cost production and low income earning capacity in this sector. It is mainly caused by inevitable problems, including pests, crop diseases, soil infertility, and natural calamities striking planting seasons that severely damage ready-to-harvest, harvested, and newly planted crops [1-2]. Maize (Zea mays var. indentata) is one of the most important food staples for resource-poor smallholders in the Philippines, providing food and income to millions [3].
Modern farming in every aspect nowadays is completely technology-driven. There is a clear worldwide demand-a want and a need-for an even cheaper and larger food supply. Mechanization of agriculture increased the area of land that could be planted and produced, owing to the precision and speed with which crop tasks could be completed. Society is on the cusp of the fifth industrial revolution that introduces different revolutionary materials, especially three-dimensional printing (3D printing). Additive manufactured quadcopters have an advantage compared to market-ready drones. Adaptability is one of the advantages of 3D-printed drones because these quadcopters can be customized according to their use [4].
The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is a multirotor aircraft characterized to possess arms and has a small motor with two pairs of fixed pitch propellers installed respectively, that generate torque to help it lift and thrust. Commonly known as a quadcopter, drones are capable of performing autonomous flight operations using GPS navigation and software-controlled flight installed in their flight controller board. Drones can be used in diverse ways, from taking high-altitude pictures and
videos to assisting military operations. Since they are quite adaptable once properly programmed, UAVs can perform an excellent deal for the ecological sustainability of the planet [5].

Additive manufacturing (AM) technology builds three-dimensional parts one layer at a time from a material, from polymers, metals, and ceramics to foams, gels, and even biomaterials. Designing the framework through a computer-aided design or CAD usually initializes the process. The method depends on the digital data file sent to a printer that constructs the component layer by layer. It aims to significantly reduce energy usage by using less material, eliminating steps in the production process, and generating less waste than traditional manufacturing methods [6-8]. More popularly known as 3D printing, AM is currently beneficial in a variety of applications like electronics [9], prototyping [10], water filtration and desalination [11-12], health [13], and many others [6],[14]. The use of additive manufacturing technology to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles allows utilizing the full potentials and capabilities of cheap drones in terms of energy consumption, quality, performance, and flight time [15]. Combining the knowledge about additive manufacturing and agriculture could make a significant impact on the agricultural industry.

In developing countries, most farmers experience a greater annual expenditure on farm power inputs than on fertilizer, seeds, or chemicals [16]. Ardufarmer steps off from this approach because it uses a small, agile, lightweight, energy-efficient automated robotic machine that flies to try and do the same job on a plant-by-plant basis that is currently being done by powerful ground equipment that weighs several tons and treats uniformly tens of hectares per hour. This alternative broadcast farming method uses UAVs equipped with detachable implements and reservoirs by what the investigators call the Ardufarmer robot. Ardufarmer uses high-precision GPS to efficiently perform crop dusting, soil drilling, planting, fertilizing, and other field-related farming tasks.
The researchers aim to introduce an alternative aside from the traditional land-based farming equipment and sought to provide an agricultural drone suitable for sowing seeds in fields by optimizing the drone design through Additive Manufacturing for rapid prototyping and low-cost manufacturing of the machine. This study is also concerned with exploring the impact of additive manufacturing on aerodynamics, structures, and materials used for UAVs and providing a cheaper alternative to expensive high-end drones. The project includes two major components: the Ardufarmer robot and the Ardufarmer system that work hand-in-hand in utilizing its four main components such as the 3D-printed seed reservoir or dispenser, seed dispensing wheel, soil distribution plate, and soil drill bit that are all situated on a 3D-printed quadcopter drone equipped with remote-controlled seed dispenser and GPS program that generates coordinates for mission path capable of sowing seeds uniformly, seed dispenser control, and communication. Also, the study is concerned with investigating the use of Ardufarmer in sowing maize (Zea mays var. indentata) grains [17]. Furthermore, this study can add to the existing knowledge on alternative planting and seed sowing practices and techniques and aid the farmers in advancing farming systems and securing the food supply.

Methodology

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Phase 1. Construction of Framework

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Drone: Design Stage

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The quadcopter design was made through the study of the interaction of the different drone components. The agricultural drone was designed in Autodesk Inventor by also considering various factors. Those factors being the distance between motors, which is inches, fuselage length, width and height, electrical components, the diameter of the motor rotor, frame weight, location of the ports, the positioning of the boards, the wire routing, the weight of the seeds and the overall structure and durability were considered. Likewise, several constraints were also considered while working on this project. Those constraints are printer volume, extremely light frame design,
printing time, 3D modeling skills, battery life, maneuverability, durability, and capability to perform planned missions and tasks [18].
Using the Zortrax M200 printer imposed three primary limitations that had to be considered during the design stage: limited build volume, poor support material quality, the type of filament, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and its tendency to warp and split [19]. Limited build volume was perhaps the foremost apparent and most easily accommodated limitation. The maximum build volume of the ZM200 is . It cannot physically print a component with any dimension exceeding this volume. The most straightforward approach was to design parts smaller than the build volume of the printer. However, when this was not an option, the cutting function of Zortrax was used to divide large, unprintable parts into smaller, printable pieces that could be assembled after fabrication.
Before coming up with the open modular design structure, several designs were considered, such as closed-shell design and closed modular design. The chosen design, as shown in Figures 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3, was applied for more simple assembly, better weight minimization, and convenient maintenance. The modular solution of the project ensures sufficient resistance against errors, which may arise during printing. The systems would be pre-configured with compatible modules, thereby giving a wide array of capabilities and choices. The measurements of the drone and the iterated design were taken, and the creation of blind solids based on components and iterations in the CAD software, Autodesk Inventor, was initialized.

Fig. 1 Computer-aided design of drone parts.

Fig. 1. Computer-aided design of drone parts.

Drone: Simulation Stage

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Instead of printing immediately, the finite element analysis of the drone was done in Autodesk Inventor. A stress test was done in order to see how the model would perform given the different requirements and circumstances, such as possible deformation and flight error [20]. Simulating the newly designed unmanned aerial vehicle ensures the safety and reliability of the drone with low cost and low maintenance requirements. The drone must have the control software that is certified for safety, effective communications systems, efficient power management, and the ability to operate in challenging environments.
The analysis sets the requirements that must be surpassed by design to prevent defects from stalling production at the prototyping stage. The simulation stage could avoid problems such as residual stress, print imperfections, build failures, and surface defects. The bases were printability in the 3D printer to be used, Zortrax M200, print volume, and design and material strength. To ensure the printability in Zortrax M200, getting rid of unnecessary curves and complicated design is advised to prevent problems during fabrication. Decreasing the print volume is also essential in minimizing weight as well as lowering the printing time and cost while still taking into account the structural integrity of each part. The material considered for the 3D printing of the drone components is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic filament, especially for the parts that are often subjected
to heat and friction due to its high heat capacity. The part subjected to finite element analysis was the arm segment that was simulated using ABS plastic material.

Fig. 2 First design simulated for the arm segment.

Fig. 2. First design simulated for the arm segment.

Fig. 3 Second design simulated for the arm segment.

Fig. 3. Second design simulated for the arm segment.

Drone: Prototyping Stage

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The created design from Autodesk Inventor was then imported into the Zortrax 3D slicing software, Z-Suite. Since the whole drone frame is larger than the print bed of the 3D printer, it was sliced into smaller segments for printing and assembled using screws. The arm segments and drone fuselage were printed using Zortrax M200 under standard print setting with 0.18 -millimeter layer height, infill, and auto-support. The printing setting is used and tested during the printing of the initial designs to ensure durability and precise measurements. The test print results using different designs are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7 using Zortrax M200. Several 3D printing techniques were also considered in the prototyping stage, such as extrusion-based printing, powder bed-based printing, and binder-inkjet. These methodologies can be considered as additive versions of some 2D-printing methods [9].

Fig. 4 Problems encountered in modular design test print of drone fuselage housing.

Fig. 4. Problems encountered in modular design test print of drone fuselage housing.

Fig. 5 Problems encountered in modular design test print of drone arm segment.

Fig. 5. Problems encountered in modular design test print of drone arm segment.

The 3D-printed components, electronic and mechanical parts were then assembled. The purpose of the completed initial prototype was to provide the opportunity to conduct a flight test, the primary objective of which was to determine if the designed structure was capable of stable, controllable flight. Since the current design was optimized for printing instead of a particular mission, there were no specific performance metrics to determine whether the flight test was successful or failed. Instead, the prototype was assessed qualitatively through flight observations and pilot feedback. As configured for the test flight, the ready-to-fly weight was 90 g . Figure 8 depicts the flight configuration of the prototype.

Fig. 6 3D-printed drone flight assembly installed with wiring and avionic instruments.

Fig. 6. 3D-printed drone flight assembly installed with wiring and avionic instruments.

Drone: Iteration and Final Prototype

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The quadcopter fuselage, which was initially built to house the different components of the UAV, needed several design modifications in order to accommodate the mounted planting toolsets like the seed reservoir and seed dispenser valve.

Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of agricultural drone.

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of agricultural drone.

Fig. 8 Stereolithography or .stl format of agricultural drone fuselage.

Fig. 8. Stereolithography or .stl format of agricultural drone fuselage.

Fig. 9 Printing of agricultural drone fuselage under standard settings.

Fig. 9. Printing of agricultural drone fuselage under standard settings.

Fig. 10 Ardufarmer agricultural drone on-standby before mission (left) and in-flight during mission (right).

Fig. 10. Ardufarmer agricultural drone on-standby before mission (left) and in-flight during mission (right).

Seed Dispenser

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The researchers used a seed gadget system principle in dropping the seeds on the chosen site [21]. The seed-dropper path is controlled by a gear attached to a servo motor attached to the quadcopter. Seeds are dropped into the holder and then into a rotational administering compartment through the gaps in the base of the holder. An infrared sensor at the base of the compartment can detect the proximity or absence of seeds distributed by the engine distributor. The release mechanism is on the neck of the bottle. The investigators also incorporated additive manufacturing technology to ensure a reduced weight and improved flight performance.

Fig. 11 Stereolithography or .stl format of the seed dispenser components.

Fig. 11. Stereolithography or .stl format of the seed dispenser components.

Fig. 12 3D-printed seed dispenser components.

Fig. 12. 3D-printed seed dispenser components.

Phase 2. Preparation of Seeds

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White Corn

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The researchers used maize or white corn (Zea mays var. indentata), which is an essential crop in the Philippines, next to rice. It is known as a leading source of livelihood mainly for its versatility since everything in a corn plant is usable.

Fig. 13 Preparation of white corn (Zea mays) seeds.

Fig. 13. Preparation of white corn (Zea mays) seeds.

Phase 3. Installation of Electronic Parts

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The researcher used an ESC or Electronic Speed Controller that converts the battery voltage down to 7.4 V , utilizing which the recipient runs in an 1800 mAh LiPo battery. It also changes over the DC control from the battery to an AC, which the engine requires. A radio channel devoted to a 2.4 GHz 4-channel was also used; this has the receiver and the transmitter. The MT 18061800 KV brushless motors were also utilized for an efficient battery and flight time.

Phase 4. Programming

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The researchers used an Arduino microcontroller that reads and processes data from the GPS (Global Positioning System) module. The microcontroller verifies the read parameters and triggers the actuators to conduct a controlled operation. The actuator, such as the servo motor, will release seeds and be activated by the microcontroller through driver circuits if the read parameters are verified. The sensors used by the researchers are the following:

NEO-6M GPS Module

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This is incorporated into the Arduino microcontroller to determine the position, time, and speed essential for seed dispersal and drone navigation.

Infrared Sensor

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The sensor is used to determine if the seeds inside the dispenser are already insufficient.

Temperature Sensor

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This sensor is used to monitor the temperature of the crop fields and determine if the location in terms of temperature is well suited for Zea mays var. indentata seeds.

The actuator used by the researchers is:

Servo Motor

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It is used to control the opened diameter, allowing the automatic opening while controlling the number of seeds falling out of the reservoir.

Phase 5. Data Gathering

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Height and Seed to Seed Distance

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The researchers pilot-tested the drone and measured the hovering height of the drone and the distance among the dropped seeds. Using a measuring tape, the researchers measured the distance between the dropped seeds. An inclinometer was used to measure the hovering height of the drone for visual measuring.

Land Area and Seed Sowing Rate

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The investigators conducted the experiment in the three chosen land areas at Bilolo, Orion, Bataan. The length and width of the land were measured using a measuring wheel and calculated by using the formula of the area. The area of the first terrestrial is 50 square meters for the second terrestrial, 100 square meters. Lastly, the area of the third land is 150 square meters. The seed sowing rate was measured using the formula [22]:

where : Measurement of seeds (Grams) ; Time (Seconds).

Theoretical and Practical Seed Sowing Rate

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Theoretical value was calculated using the formula of seed sowing rate. A comparison was made between the theoretical and practical values of seed sowing rate.

Time-Saving

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The researchers recorded the time of the seed sowing of the drone in three different terrestrials and the time of manual seed sowing. A stopwatch was used to record the time of the seed sowing. Time saved was calculated by using the formula [22]:

Time saved human drone human .
where: Time (seconds)

Statistical Analysis

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The sensors and actuators were tested at distances ranging from 50 square meters to 60 square meters.. By collecting data and testing the drone, the time of the drone dispersing the seed in a specific land area was identified. The raw data were subjected.

Results and Discussion

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Height and Seed Distance

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Table 1 Shows the accuracy of the distance between the height of the drone and the seeds. It was observed from Trial 1 to 3 that the distance of seed sowing and the land increases if the altitude of the drone increases.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

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Table 2 Shows the cost-benefit analysis of the drone, tractor, and carabao that are essential for corn planting. It was evident that in option one, the drone has a ratio or 0.1 cost-benefit ratio. The cost-benefit ratio of option 2 is or 30.78 . The cost-benefit ratio of option 3 is 20:13 or 1.54.

The researchers measured the land area and the seed sowing rate. Inland area 1 with the measure of 50 square meters, the seed sowing time is 36.41 seconds having a seed sowing rate of . Inland area 2 with 100 square meters, the seed sowing time is 73.82 seconds having a seed sowing rate of . Inland area 3, with 150 square meters, the sowing time of 110.24 seconds has a seed sowing rate of . It is evident that as the measurement of land area increases, the sowing time increases, and the seed sowing rate decreases.

The amount of the seeds is 100 grams for the three modes. Data shows the relation between the hovering height of the drone and the seeds dropped by the drone. For 1 meter, the distance among the seeds is 31.48 cm with a standard depth of 10 cm . For the 2-meter height, the distance among the seeds is 33.2 cm with a standard depth of 10 cm . Lastly, for the 3-meter height, the distance among the seeds is 34.7 cm in a standard depth of 10 cm .

The researchers measured the land area and the seed sowing rate. Inland area 1 with the measure of 50 square meters, the seed sowing time is 36.41 seconds having a seed sowing rate of . Inland area 2 with the measure of 100 square meters, the seed sowing time is 73.82 seconds having a seed sowing rate of . Inland area 3, with the measure of 150 square meters, the sowing time is 110.24 seconds having a seed sowing rate of . It is evident that as the measurement of land area increases, the sowing time increases, and the seed sowing rate decreases.

Comparison between Theoretical and Practical Seed Sowing Rate

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Using the equation for theoretical value, the researchers calculated the theoretical value of the seed sowing rate compared with the automated planting value. Experimental results show that the practical value of the seed sowing rate is somewhat lower than the theoretical value, which is defined as the loss factor.

Time-Saving

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Table 3 Summarizes the seeds sowing rate for different land areas.

Land Area | Amount of Seeds (gm) | Sowing Time (s) | Seed Sowing Rate (gm/s)
1 | 100 | 36.41 | 4.12
2 | 100 | 73.82 | 2.03
3 | 100 | 110.24 | 1.36

The researchers sowed the seeds from different heights and spreading diameters. The researchers calculated the time required to cover 150 square meters of land. It requires 30 minutes to sow seeds using the agricultural drone. While in manual technology, it requires 210 minutes to sow seeds in 150 square meters of land. The investigators found that the minimum percentage relative time saving by the proposed drone technology is

Conclusion

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The present study develops an agricultural drone capable of planting seeds in fields at a rate of 12 seconds per square meter as an alternative to traditional land-based farming equipment. The seed dissemination procedure will be quick and efficient in terms of seed placement. After some tests and observation, the researchers made a larger seed-releasing compartment and propellers for more precise and smooth rotations. The researchers tested the efficiency of the seed-dispersing of the drone. The program Arduino IDE is developed to manipulate the servo motor. The seed dispensing is delegated by the GPS coordinates or by manual control using the infrared remote. Also, the temperature of the environment is monitored in planting the drone to determine if the environment is compatible with the seeds. The study shows that the seed sowing using a drone has a faster time at 36.41 seconds in 50 square meters compared to the traditional or manual planting at 144 seconds in 50 square meters. Moreover, the minimum percentage relative time saving by the proposed drone technology is . Improvements in the electronic components are recommended. It is also recommended to utilize a lighter battery and motors to reduce the overall weight of the agricultural drone.

Acknowledgments

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The 3D printers and 3D printing materials used in this study were provided by the Additive Manufacturing Research Laboratory (AMReL), headed by Prof. John Ryan C. Dizon. The AMReL is a project of the Department of Science and Technology - Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD) and the Bataan Peninsula State University (BPSU). The primary author would like to extend her deepest gratitude to Prof. John Ryan C. Dizon, Mr. Ray Noel M. Delda, Mr. Sean Dominique N. Rodriguez, Ms. Sophia S. Dizon, Lhianne G. Ilaya, and Ms. Kate P. Mendoza for their assistance in 3D printing parts of the drone and also to Mrs. Resurreccion D. Medina, Mrs. Mary Grace V. Vinzon, Mrs. Marilou J. Tañada, and Mr. Ian Luegim M. De Leon for their contribution in the financial assistance made by Bataan National High School - Junior and Senior High School and the Schools Division Office of Balanga.

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The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.39.pdf

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J.R.C. Dizon, A.H. Espera, Q. Chen, and R. Advincula, Mechanical Characterization of 3DPrinted Polymers, Additive Manufacturing, Volume 20, 2018, 44-67, ISSN 2214-8604, Doi:

A. D. Valino, J. R. C. Dizon, A. H. Espera, Q. Chen, J. Messman, and R. C. Advincula, Advances in 3D printing of thermoplastic polymer composites and nanocomposites, Prog. Polym. Sci., vol. 98, 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2019.101162.

A.H. Espera Jr., J.R.C. Dizon, C. Qiyi, and R.C. Advincula, 3D-printing and advanced manufacturing for electronics, Progress in Additive Manufacturing, volume 4, (2019), 245-267, doi:

J. R. C. Dizon, A. D. Valino, L. R. Souza, A. H. Espera, Q. Chen, and R. C. Advincula, 3D Printed Injection Molds using various 3D Printing Technologies, Mater. Sci. Forum, vol. 1005, pp. 150-156, 2020, doi: .

L. D. Tijing, J. R. C. Dizon, I. Ibrahim, A. R. N. Nisay, H. K. Shon, and R. C. Advincula, 3D printing for membrane separation, desalination and water treatment, Appl. Mater. Today, vol. 18, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.apmt.2019.100486.

G. G. C. J. L.D. Tijing, J. R. C. Dizon, 3D-Printed Absorbers for Solar-Driven Interfacial Water Evaporation: A Mini-Review, Submitt. to Adv. Sustain. Sci. Eng. Technol.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 1, pp 53-62

doi: 10.4028/p-j139jv

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-10-06

Revised:
2021-11-12

Accepted:
2022-02-15

Online:
2022-03-25

Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

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ALSHIZAWI Miaad , KUMAR Vinod

¹Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, Sohar, Oman

miaad.alshizawi@gmail.com, vkumar@su.edu.om.

Keywords: Energy Consumption; evaporative cooling, passive cool roof, radiation reflector; acrylic resin.

Abstract

Energy consumption in conventional domestic housing in Oman is quite high due to cost-intensive mechanical air conditioning systems. For the climate conditions in Oman, it is expected that energy conservation using a smart passive cool roof will be valuable and significant. This paper presents the thermal assessment and energy efficiency of a novel forced convective evaporative cooling system with a radiation reflector. The results revealed that the proposed smart passive cool system can reduce the indoor air temperature of the building models, with the highest reduction in the room and roof surface temperature of and , respectively. This is due to its ability to inhibit solar radiation and dissipate heat by evaporation, forced convection due to the dynamic behaviour of air in the air ventilation between primary and secondary roofs, and nocturnal radiation. The research has conclusively demonstrated that the smart passive cool system may significantly lower the energy consumption of residential and commercial buildings.

Introduction

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Residential buildings are the largest energy consumers in the Sultanate of Oman, accounting for of total consumption in the 2018 annual electricity report [1]. The increase in energy consumption in residential buildings is principally attributable to the heave use of air conditioning systems due to high solar radiation throughout the year. The depletion of oil supplies and falling fuel prices, resulting in an increase in electrical energy costs, necessitates a concentrated effort to reduce energy use. In such cases, green energy or passive cooling systems can significantly decrease heat leakage into buildings and lower energy consumption.

Many investigations have been undertaken to explore the effectiveness of a passive cool roof since Fracastoro et al. [2] investigated the possibility of minimizing heat gain in dwellings by employing under-roof cavities in 1997. In 2002, the French Scientific and Technical Centre for Building Research [3] took measurements on a number of experimental passive cool roofs. Evaporative cooling utilizes the effect of evaporation as the natural heat dissipater. Sensible heat inleak from surroundings has been utilized as latent heat needed to dry out the water. Nagano [4] compared the efficiency of evaporative cooling with a conventional mortar concrete roof and observed that evaporative cooling can reduce the top surface heat by . Erens [5] & San Jose Alonso et al.[6] observed that direct evaporative cooling produces low air conditioning expenses.

Khedari et al. [7] investigated free convection in a roof thermal panel experimentally. In 2007, Chang et al. [8] performed an experimental evaluation of the energy savings gained by adding a thermal insulation barrier in a double-skin roof. Based on a research of the thermo-fluid dynamic behaviour of the air within the ventilated roof and heat fluxes through ventilated roofs, Gagliano et al. [9] reported in 2012 that roof ventilation can significantly reduce heat fluxes (up to ) during the summer season. In 2001, Hirunlabh et al. [10] studied several performance characteristics as a function of solar radiation for various roof pitch degrees. Villi et al. [11] establish correlations to characterize airflow and heat transport events in the ventilation cavity. Ciampi et al. [12], and Medved [13] discovered that a ventilated roof maintains the inner shell temperature closer to ambient, minimizing the impact of solar radiation on the building. The reduction of heat in a leak into an attic through metal deck roofing in industrial buildings was studied by Ming ChianYew et.al [14]. The
study reveals the effect of cavity ventilation, solar powered fans and thermal reflective coating on the thermal performance of buildings. A maximum reduction of attic air temperature was obtained compared to a normal roof. The improved performance is because of integration of reflective coating, moving air cavity (MAC) with solar powered fans and reflection of sunlight and circulate the hot air efficiently. Jorge L. Alvarado [15], USA, used commercially available materials such as aluminium 1100 and galvanized steel as radiation reflectors; and polyurethane, polystyrene, polyethylene, and an air gap were used as insulation. Experimental results showed that the radiation reflector shape as well as the material selection of each passive cooling system led to reductions in heat conduction between 65 and . Anna Laura Pisello [16], 2014, Italy, have used traditional roof brick tiles for passive cooling. Results showed that during summer the high reflection tiles are that able to decrease the average external roof surface temperature by more than and the indoor operative temperature by more than . Several studies have been conducted in various regions in order to produce novel and energy efficient passive cool roofing [17-21].

High ambient temperature in arid regions raises the indoor and exterior temperature levels of residential and commercial structures, accelerating the use of energy-intensive and costly mechanical air-conditioning systems. The novelty of the present study is to assess and compare the thermal performance of a smart passive cool system (forced convective evaporative cooling with radiation reflector) with a conventional system. It also quantifies those advantages in terms of heat flow changes in the field.

Materials and Methods

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.53.pdf

Two symmetrical scaled laboratory test models were used to study the thermal performance of smart passive cool roof. One of them is a reference roof with aluminium sheet of thickness 2 mm that has no additional roof materials on top of it. It is used to compare the room air and roof slab temperatures. The second model is a smart passive cool system that has a roof with aluminum radiation reflector and evaporator cooling system separated by an air gap of 10 cm between them. Evaporator cooling system has cooling fans connected in series with a diaphragm pump for water circulation.

Fig. 1 Schematic of the Experimental Set up

Fig. 1. Schematic of the Experimental Set up

Heat Transfer Mechanisms. There are three types of heat transfer mechanisms taking place in a smart passive cool roof system as shown in Fig.1. First stage cooling is reflection of solar radiation by the external surface of aluminium reflector. In the second stage of heat transfer process, evaporative cooling with forced convection due to the dynamic flow of air in the ventilation take place. The final stage of heat in leak is conduction through the top surface of the roofing layer. The heat in leak into the smart passive cool room is effectively reduced by a combination of radiation reflector, dynamic air ventilation and evaporative cooling technique as shown in experimental set-up.

Conventional Reference system. The walls of the reference laboratory model ( cm ) was fabricated by acrylic resin thermal insulator to avoid any lateral heat conduction through the walls and to ensure that the heat transfer will take place only through the roofs as shown in Fig.2. Aluminium sheet with a thickness of 2 mm was fixed at the top of the model as roof. Thermocouples are fixed at various points to measure room air and roof surface temperatures.

Fig. 2 Reference roof System

Fig. 2. Reference roof System

Fig. 3 Smart Passive cool Roof

Fig. 3. Smart Passive cool Roof

Smart Passive Cool Roof System (Forced Convective Evaporative Cooling-Radiation Reflector Passive Cool System). In a smart passive cool system, two aluminium metal sheets with an air gap of 10 cm between them were used to enhance the convective cooling process as shown in Fig.3. Specially made channels were used to fix the metal plates with the required air ventilation. The experimental model consists of water ejectors fixed between the metallic roofs to spray water to obtain evaporative cooling. Water jets sprayed through the nozzle will absorb sensible heat load from the roof and utilize it as latent heat to get evaporated. The majority of heat from the roof will be taken away by evaporative cooling. A series of cooling fans (five) are fixed in the air ventilation ( 10 cm ) to improve the heat transfer rate by forced convection. Presence of dynamic air in the ventilation reduces heat in leak. In addition, radiation reflector fixed on top of the system improves the cooling rate by radiation reflection. Thermocouples are fixed at various points to measure room air and roof surface temperatures.

Materials. The various layers of the passive cool model are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Material Specifications

Material
Thickness
(cm)
Thermal conductivity (W/ mok)

Acrylic Resin
0.5
0.19

Aluminium radiation reflector
0.2
221

Air ventilation
10
26

Instruments. Table. 2 shows the specifications of the temperature data recorder and Type T thermocouples installed (Fig.4) to measure the indoor air and the roof surface temperatures. The data were recorded every 5 minutes for 120 minutes in both the reference and passive cool system models.

Table 2. Data logger and Thermocouple specifications

Type | Type T, exposed type, PTFE insulated | Model | TC-08
Sensitivity | 40 μV/°C, 1°C over the range -200°C to 400°C | Channels | Eight
Tip diameter | 1.5 mm | Range of measurement | −270 to +1820 °C
Tip temperature | −75°C to +350 °C | Resolution | 0.025°C

(b) Type T thermocouple
Fig. 4 Instruments for measuring the temperature

Figure 4. (b) Type T thermocouple Fig. 4 Instruments for measuring the temperature

Results and Discussions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.53.pdf

Type T thermocouples fixed in the middle of the symmetrical test models were used to measure room air temperature. The sensors fixed on the interior roof surface were used to measure roof surface temperature. These sensors are connected to the temperature data logger and temperatures were recorded with a computer assisted system continuously for 120 minutes. The two halogen lamps of 1500 W were used to heat the reference and passive cool roofs artificially in the laboratory.
Thermal Performance of Conventional Reference System. The room air and interior roof surface temperature profile of reference system is shown in Fig.5. The room air temperature increased gradually from to in first 27 minutes and then increased slightly from 30 to 120 minutes. The interior surface temperature increased sharply in first 9 minutes from to and then gradually increased from 9 to 30 minutes. The indoor temperature recorded after 45, 90 and 120 minutes were and respectively.

Fig. 5 Temperature profile of reference roof

Fig. 5. Temperature profile of reference roof

Thermal Performance of smart passive cool roof system. The passive cool room has significantly lower temperature peaks as shown in Fig.6. The roof surface temperature increased gradually from to in the first 21 minutes and raised slightly from 21 to 120 minutes. There was only a minor increase in room air temperature. The indoor air and roof surface temperature obtained after 120 minutes of operation were and respectively.
Comparison of Reference and Smart Passive Cool Roof Systems - Room Air Temperature. Compared to a reference room, the smart passive cool room has significantly lower temperature peaks as shown in Fig.7. The room air temperature of reference system increased steadily from to in the first 45 minutes and then increased slowly about 0.1 to in every 5 minutes until 120 minutes. Whereas room air temperature of the smart passive cool roof increased very slowly and marginally from to in the first 45 minutes and afterwards remained almost constant from 45 to 120 minutes. It indicates that the passive cool room's indoor temperature was significantly lower than that of a standard reference roof. The maximum reduction in room air temperature of smart passive cool roof system in comparison to a conventional reference roof was observed to be as shown in Fig.8. The difference in temperature is due to to the improved evaporative cooling, exploiting dynamic nature of air ventilation and radiation reflector. The roofing
system stops the incoming heat flux using the dynamic air in the ventilated channel which is cooled by means of water evaporation (latent heat) and also due to the radiation reflection by aluminium reflector at the top layer.

Fig. 6 Temperature profile of smart passive cool roof

Fig. 6. Temperature profile of smart passive cool roof

Fig. 7 Room air temperature profile of reference and passive cool roofs

Fig. 7. Room air temperature profile of reference and passive cool roofs

Fig. 8 Room air temperature reduction between reference and smart passive cool roof

Fig. 8. Room air temperature reduction between reference and smart passive cool roof

Fig. 9 Interior Roof Surface temperature profile of reference and smart passive cool roof

Fig. 9. Interior Roof Surface temperature profile of reference and smart passive cool roof

Comparison of Reference and Smart Passive Cool Roof Systems Interior Roof Surface Temperature. When compared to a typical reference room, the passive cool room has significantly lower roof surface temperature peaks as shown in Fig.9. The roof surface temperature of reference roof increased significantly from to in the first 21 minutes. Regardless, the aluminium reflector - evaporator passive cool system stayed stable all the time with a marginal fluctuation in
temperature and the data after 60 and 120 minutes were and respectively. The maximum reduction of ( ) has been observed in interior roof temperature of smart passive cool roof in comparison with a normal reference roof as shown in Fig.10.

Fig. 10 Interior roof surface temperature reduction between reference and smart passive cool roof

Fig. 10. Interior roof surface temperature reduction between reference and smart passive cool roof

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.53.pdf

The present study focuses on the thermal assessment of a smart, innovative passive cooling system and its impact on cooling potential. It has been established that the smart passive cooling system showed much lower temperature peaks than the normal reference roof. The resulting maximum reduction in room air and interior roof surface temperature after 120 minutes of operation were and , respectively. The efficiency of a smart passive cool roof (evaporative cooling system with forced convection and radiation reflector) has been demonstrated convincingly through the laboratory test models. It can be used as an energy-saving technique and provide comfort conditions in Oman villas to reduce the indoor temperature of the buildings and save energy in terms of air conditioning.

Acknowledgements

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.1.53.pdf

This is to acknowledge that this paper is a part of the research project entitled "Experimental Investigation of Cooling Performance of Psychrometric Passive Cooling in hot arid regions", funded by the Research Council, Oman, under the Faculty-mentored Undergraduate Research Grant Award Program.

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Keywords Index

#

3D Printing 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives; Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

A

Abs Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Additive Manufacturing; Quadcopter; 3d-printed Drone; Agriculture; Zea Mays Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

C

Conductivity Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Cube Satellite 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Cubesat 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Current-voltage Characteristic An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

E

Electrical Model An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

Energy Consumption; Evaporative Cooling Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

G

Generator Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

H

High-performance Polymers 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Hydrogen Production An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

I

Ir Film An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

L

Local Current Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

M

Morphology Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

P

Passive Cool Roof Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

Pico-hydro Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Polycrystalline Silicon Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Pt Film An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

R

Radiation Reflector; Acrylic Resin Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

S

Scanning Probe Microscopy Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Solar Cells Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Solid Polymer Electrolysis An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

T

Textured Substrate Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate

Turbine Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Authors Index

A

Advincula, R. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Andres, N. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Ante, U. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

C

Cucus, A. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

D

David, G. Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

Dizon, J. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Dunan, H. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

E

Efendi, D. An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

G

Gache, P. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Gamboa, E. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Garcia, J. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Gomez, R. Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

I

Italia, J. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

K

Kumar, V. Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

L

Leon, M. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Liza, F. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

M

Manalang, R. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Maulas, E. Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

Muhida, R. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

N

Ng, A. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

P

Poblete, R. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Pratowo, B. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

R

Riza, M. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

S

Servolo, R. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

Shizawi, M. Experimental Investigation of Thermal Assessment of Smart Passive Cooling System

Soewito, S. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

Sutjipto, A. Morphology and Conductivity Characteristics of Polycrystalline Silicon Thin Film Deposited by Plasma-Enhanced Vapor Deposition in Textured Substrate; An Electrical Model of a Solid Polymer Electrolyte Cell

U

Urganay, J. Development of a Pico-Hydro Electric Generator with 3D-Printed Pelton Turbine

V

Venegas, J. Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)

Villablanca, M. 3D-Printing for Cube Satellites (CubeSats): Philippines` Perspectives

Vinzon, M. Development of 3D-Printed Agricultural Drone (Ardufarmer)