Engineering Innovations Volume 3

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Volume 3 of
Engineering Innovations
ISSN print 2813-0995
ISSN web 2813-1002

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Table of Contents

MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

Sreedhar Rao Gunakala, Victor M. Job, Maraika Alexander

Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Fadlilatul Taufany, Rahmasari Nur Setyono, Abdul Wasi, I Wayan Restu Surya Krishna, Yeni Rahmawati, Ali Altway, Susianto Susianto, Siti Nurkhamidah

Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

Tran Vinh Hung, Ta Van Ranh, Tran Thi Van Nga, Le Hong Ky

The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

Patrick Roger Townsend Valencia, Juan Carlos Suárez, Alvaro Rodríguez-Ortìz

Parametric Analysis of MOSFET Based Absorber for 5 G Massive MIMO Base Station

Elliot O. Omoru, Viranjay Srivastava

Keywords Index

Authors Index

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-3/978-3-0364-1144-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 3, pp 1-12

doi: 10.4028/p-d6t7o5

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-09-30

Revised:
2022-03-26

Accepted:
2022-03-31

Online:
2022-09-01

MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

Sreedhara Rao Gunakala , Victor Job and Maraika Alexander

Department of Mathematics and Statistics, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

Department of Mathematics, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica

sreedhara.rao@sta.uwi.edu, victor.job@uwimona.edu.jm, lisamaraika@yahoo.com.

Keywords: Fluid slip, Heat transfer, MHD, Ohmic heating, Porous media, Von Karman transformations.

Abstract

In this paper, the axially-symmetric MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) slip fluid flow and heat transfer between a rotating disk and a stationary permeable disk has been examined. The physical system is comprised of a free-fluid region with an underlying fluid-saturated porous bed with a solid base. The fluid flow within the free-fluid region is modeled using the Navier-Stokes equation, whereas the flow within the porous bed is described using the Brinkman equation. The governing equations of fluid flow and heat transfer, along with the associated boundary conditions, are reduced to a system of ordinary differential equations using suitable similarity transformations. A series expansion technique is then employed in order to obtain analytical approximations for the velocity and temperature distributions. The results produced in this study are presented in graphical form. Unless otherwise stated, the following non-dimensional values are used for the numerical calculations: Hartmann number , Reynolds number , Darcy parameter , thermal conductivity ratio , Eckert number , slip parameter , and Prandtl numbers . The influence of the Darcy parameter, Hartmann number and thermal conductivity ratio on the flow velocity and fluid temperature are investigated.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

The study of fluid flows with heat transfer is of tremendous importance in engineering and the physical sciences. An important physical phenomenon that has long since become a vital part of hydrodynamics is the flow of fluid between rotating disks. Applications of this type of fluid flow can be found in the fields of biomedical engineering, chemical engineering and geophysics. In particular, the study of flows through porous media between rotating disks is useful for understanding the extraction of fluid from porous ground, the underground flow of crude oil, industrial filtration processes and the lubrication of porous bearings [1,2].

Porous media flows between rotating and stationary disks are commonly described using either Darcy's equation or the Brinkman equation. Ehrhardt [3] explored coupling conditions at the interface between a free-flowing fluid and a fluid-saturated porous medium. The author noted that the use of the Navier-Stokes equations for the free-flow and Darcy's Law for the flow through the porous medium is inherently difficult, since the structures of the corresponding differential equations are fundamentally different. Neale and Nader [4] wrote about the relative advantage of Brinkman's law over Darcy's law, and mentioned that the lack of a macroscopic shear term in Darcy's model made it incompatible with the existence of a boundary layer region in the porous medium.

Saxena and Kumar [5] considered the MHD flow of fluid bounded by rotating disks. The Brinkman model was used to describe the flow of viscous fluid through the porous region. Hamza [1] studied the influence of uniform suction on MHD porous media flow due to an infinite permeable rotating disk. The flow domain is comprised of a free fluid region and a porous (Brinkman) region. Similarity transformations were used to reduce the governing equations to a set of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, which were solved using a series approximation technique. Gunakala et al. [6]
used the Brinkman model to investigate the heat transfer and flow of two immiscible fluids through a channel with porous beds, and the governing equations were solved using the finite element method.

The influence of radiation on the flow of fluid through a porous medium over a permeable rotating disk with velocity slip was studied by Jain and Bohra [7]. The Brinkman model was used to describe the flow through the porous medium, and temperature-dependent fluid properties were considered. Hayat et al. [8] used the Darcy-Brinkman-Forchheimer model to investigate the steady three-dimensional slip flow of nanofluid through a porous region located above a rotating disk. The governing equations for velocity, temperature and concentration were solved using the Optimal Homotopy Analysis Method, and the effects of viscous dissipation, Brownian motion and thermophoresis were examined. Gul et al. [9] considered the melting of a material and unsteady flow of the melted liquid over a permeable rotating disk under the influence of a uniform transverse magnetic field. The governing Brinkman and energy equations were solved using the homotopy analysis method, and the influence of relevant dimensionless parameters was investigated.

Sibanda and Makinde [10] conducted a numerical study on the steady MHD flow and heat transfer in a porous medium that is bounded by a rotating disk. In their study, the influence of Ohmic heating, viscous dissipation and Hall currents were considered. Jogie and Bhatt [11] explored the flow and heat transfer of a viscous incompressible fluid between a rotating solid disk and a stationary fluid-saturated naturally permeable disk. The flow was separated into 3 regions; a free-flow region, a Brinkman region and a Darcy region. In their study, the Beavers-Joseph condition was used to model the tangential slip between the Brinkman and Darcy regions. The governing differential equations were solved using a series expansion method and the shooting method. The results were presented using velocity profiles, streamlines and temperature profiles.

To the best of the authors' knowledge, the combined effects of fluid slip and Ohmic heating on the two-layer flow of fluid between two disks in the presence of an applied magnetic field have not been investigated in the existing literature. Therefore in the present work, the novel problem of a two-layer MHD slip flow and heat transfer with Ohmic heating between a rotating solid disk and a stationary permeable disk with a solid base is considered. The flow within the free-fluid region is governed by the Navier-Stokes equation and the flow within the porous region is described using the Brinkman model. A series expansion method is used to obtain approximations for the flow velocities and fluid temperature in each region. The effects of Hartmann number, Darcy parameter, slip parameter and thermal conductivity ratio on the velocity and temperature profiles in the free-fluid region (located below the rotating disk) and the underlying Brinkman region are examined in the absence and presence of an applied magnetic field.

Mathematical Model

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

The steady axially-symmetric flow of a laminar and incompressible Newtonian fluid between a rotating solid disk and a stationary fluid-saturated porous disk is investigated, where the vertical distance between the disks is equal to the thickness of the porous disk as shown in Figure 1. The rotating solid disk is located at , and has angular velocity and constant temperature . The stationary permeable disk has a solid base that is located at and has constant temperature (where ). A uniform magnetic field with strength is applied to the system so that the Lorentz force induced by this magnetic field acts in the radial and angular directions. The transfer of heat between the rotating disk and the stationary disk is considered along with Ohmic heating. The Navier-slip condition on the rotating disk and the no-slip condition on the solid base is considered, and it is assumed that the velocity, temperature, shear stress and heat flux are continuous at the interface between the free-flow and porous regions.

Figure 1: Schematic Diagram

Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic Diagram

Assuming that external forces on the fluid and the effects of thermal radiation and viscous dissipation are negligible, the governing equations for the problem are given below [11-13].
Zone I (Free-fluid region, ):
Continuity Equation:

Momentum Equations:

Energy Equation:

Zone II (Brinkman region, ):
Continuity Equation:

Momentum Equations:

Energy Equation:

where and are the radial and axial coordinates; and are the radial, angular and axial velocity components in the free-fluid region; and are the radial, angular and axial velocity components in the Brinkman region; and are the pressure, temperature and thermal conductivity in the free-fluid region; and and are the pressure, temperature, thermal conductivity and permeability in the Brinkman region. The fluid density, viscosity, fluid specific heat capacity, electrical conductivity and the magnetic flux density are denoted by and respectively. The associated boundary conditions are:

where is the Navier slip parameter.

Method of Solution

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

Let and be the non-dimensional axial and radial coordinates respectively, and consider the Von Karman transformations

Approximations for the velocity and temperature within the free-fluid and Brinkman regions are obtained by taking the following series expansions [15] for low Reynolds number:

Substituting these series expansions and comparing the coefficients of the lowest powers of , the equations below are obtained.

First Set of Equations:

Second Set of Equations:

The associated boundary conditions are

In order to visualize the fluid flow within the free-fluid and Brinkman regions, the stream functions and are considered as defined by

with boundary conditions

The equations and corresponding boundary conditions obtained in (20)-(28) are solved analytically using the mathematical software Maple, and then the results obtained from this analytical solution are presented graphically using the mathematical software MATLAB.

Discussion of Results

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

Numerical results are obtained from the analytical approximations and presented as graphical plots of velocity and temperature for different values of the Darcy parameter, Hartmann number, thermal conductivity ratio and slip parameter. Unless otherwise stated, the following non-dimensional values are used for the numerical calculations: , . For ease of notation in the graphical plots, the radial, angular and axial flow velocity components, the fluid temperature and the stream function are denoted by and (respectively) in the free-fluid and Brinkman regions.

Figures 2 to 5 display the velocity components and temperature for different values of the Darcy parameter . From figures 2 to 4, it is seen that when increases, the magnitude of the
velocity components and are increased in both free-fluid and Brinkman regions; this is caused by an increase in the permeability of the Brinkman region and a corresponding increase in flow resistance within the porous medium. The frictional heating generated by this increased flow resistance within the Brinkman region causes the fluid temperature to increase (Figure 5) when is increased.

Figure 2: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 2. Figure 2: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 4: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 3. Figure 4: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 3: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 4. Figure 3: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 5: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 5. Figure 5: Plot of vs for different values of

Figures 6 to 9 illustrate the impact of varying the Hartmann number on the velocity components and temperature . The results indicate that the plots for and , for relatively small values of , are similar in pattern to the ones obtained without the MHD influence. It is also noticed that in the absence of a magnetic field ( ), the radial and axial velocity profiles (Figure 6 and 7) are approximately parabolic with the maximum magnitude occurring within the free-fluid region (near the upper disk); this is consistent with the work of Krishna, Rao, and Murthy [16]. However, the values of each velocity component attained with non-zero values of is lower than that obtained with . This is due to a resistive force which (as per Faraday's Second Law) is produced by the conducting fluid moving through a magnetic field. This effective drag on the fluid, is larger for stronger magnetic fields [13] (reflected by larger values of Hartmann number ). Consequently, the flow velocity decreases as increases. Indeed, the plot for each component ( and ), for a relatively large value of (for example ), suggests that the drag force produced is large enough to significantly alter or distort the flow patterns obtained for relatively small values of . The
large drag force is further enhanced by other resistive forces being induced by fluid particles moving outwards or upwards, as described earlier. These forces could account for the relative shift of the maximum value of the curves for . It is observed in Figure 8 that increasing the value of causes an increase in the angular velocity slip on the rotating disk; this is due to an increase in the angular velocity gradient near the disk as the strength of the magnetic field increases. Moreover, the temperature in the free-fluid and Brinkman regions increases with increased (Figure 9) due to an enhancement of Ohmic heating within the fluid.

Figure 6: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 6. Figure 6: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 8: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 7. Figure 8: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 7: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 8. Figure 7: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 9: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 9. Figure 9: Plot of vs for different values of

The influence of the slip parameter on the velocity components and temperature are displayed in Figures 10 to 13. These figures show that each of the velocity components is reduced when increases; this is caused by a reduction in the centrifugal forces acting on the fluid as the adhesion of fluid particles on the surface of the rotating disk is decreased. It is also noticed that there is a region near the rotating disk within which a reversal of fluid flow occurs in the radial and axial directions (Figure 10 and 11); this region increases in size as is increased. The temperature within the free-fluid and Brinkman regions increase with increased as a result of a reduction in thermal advection.

Figure 10: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 10. Figure 10: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 12: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 11. Figure 12: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 11: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 12. Figure 11: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 13: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 13. Figure 13: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 14: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 14. Figure 14: Plot of vs for different values of

Figure 14 shows the variation of fluid temperature with different values of the ratio of thermal conductivities in the porous and free-flow regions. The thermal conductivity ratio was found to have no significant impact on the velocity of the fluid; however, has a significant effect on the
temperature profiles. When is increased, the transfer of energy from the rotating solid disk to the stationary porous disk through the fluid is reduced. Consequently, as shown in Figure 18, increasing leads to a reduction in the temperature of the fluid.

It is observed in Figure 15 that when the value of is increased, the spacing of the streamlines is reduced in both the free-fluid and non-porous regions; this is consistent with an increase in flow velocity in each region as increases (see Figures 2 to 4). Furthermore, the distortion of streamlines in the porous region is reduced for increasing values of due to a decrease in flow resistance as the permeability of the porous medium increases.

Figure 15: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Figure 15. Figure 15: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

The magnitude of the stream function within the free-fluid and Brinkman regions decreases with increased M (Figure 16) due to the suppression of fluid flow by the applied magnetic field. It is seen in Figure 17 that the values of the stream function decrease as the slip parameter is increased; this is consistent with a reduction in flow velocity with increased (see Figures 10 to 12). Moreover, the size of the flow reversal region increases with increased until a complete flow reversal occurs in the radial and axial directions when is sufficiently large ( ).

Figure 16: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Figure 16. Figure 16: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Figure 16: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Figure 17: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Figure 18. Figure 17: Streamline Plots for Different Values of

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

The present work investigates the steady fluid flow and heat transfer between a rotating disk and a stationary fluid-saturated permeable disk in the presence of a transverse magnetic field. Based on the results obtained in this study, the main conclusions are as follows:

The magnitude of the flow velocity in the free-flow and porous regions can be increased by increasing the Darcy parameter, and can be reduced by increasing the strength of the magnetic field. Furthermore, the flow velocity can be reduced by increasing fluid slip on the rotation disk.

The temperature of the fluid in the free-flow and porous regions can be increased by increasing the Darcy parameter, Hartmann number and slip parameter, and by decreasing the thermal conductivity ratio.

The displacement of streamlines from the vertical axis is greater as the radial coordinate increases.

The magnitude of the stream function can be increased by increasing the Darcy parameter and decreasing the magnetic field strength. The stream function values are decreased by increasing the fluid slip on the rotating disk
The size of the flow reversal region increases when the amount of fluid slip on the rotating disk is increased.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.1.pdf

S.E.E. Hamza, Effect of Uniform Suction on MHD Flow Through Porous Medium Due To A Rotating Disk, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 5(12) (2014) 896-902.

P. Zandbergen, D. Dijkstra, Von Kármán swirling flows, Annual Rev. Fluid. Mech. 19 (1987) 465-491.

M. Ehrhardt, An introduction to fluid-porous interface coupling, Progress in computational physics 2 (2010) 3-12. doi: 10.2174/978160805254711201010003.

G. Neale, W. Nader, Practical significance of Brinkman's extension of Darcy's law: coupled parallel flows within a channel and a bounding porous medium, The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering 52(4) (1974) 475-478. doi: .

P. Saxena, L. Kumar, A study of the effect of magnetic field on the rotation of a viscous fluid near a porous medium with a constant suction, Int. J. Eng. Sci. Tech. 6 (2014) 64-76. doi: 10.4314/ijest.v6i4.6.

S.R. Gunakala, B. Bhatt, D.M.G. Comissiong, D.V. Krishna, Heat Transfer in Immiscible Fluids through a Channel with Porous Beds Bounded by Differentially Heated Plates Using Galerkin's Finite Element Method, Journal of Mathematics Research 3(2) (2011) 74-97. doi: 10.5539/jmr.v3n2p74.

S. Jain, S. Bohra, Radiation Effects in Flow through Porous Medium over a Rotating Disk with Variable Fluid Properties, Advances in Mathematical Physics 2016 (2016) 9671513. doi: .

T. Hayat, F. Hayat, T. Muhammad, A. Alsaedi, Darcy-Forchheimer flow by rotating disk with partial slip, Applied Mathematics and Mechanics 41 (2020) 741-752. doi: .

T. Gul, R.S. Gul, W. Noman, F. Hussain, I.S. Amiri, Controlling of the melting through porous medium and magnetic field, Measurement and Control 54(5-6) (2021) 779-789. doi: .

P. Sibanda, O.D. Makinde, On steady MHD flow and heat transfer past a rotating disk in a porous medium with ohmic heating and viscous dissipation, International Journal of Numerical Methods for Heat & Fluid Flow 20(3) (2010) 269-285. doi: .

D.C. Jogie, B. Bhatt, The study of fluid flow and heat transfer of a viscous incompressible fluid between a rotating solid disk and a stationary permeable disk using the Brinkman-Darcy model, ZAMM-Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics/Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik 96 (5) (2016) 620-632. doi: .

D. Nield, A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, third ed., New York, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc, 2006.

S. Eskinazi, Vector Mechanics of Fluids and Magnetofluids, New York, Academic Press, 1967.

P.D. Verma, B.S. Bhatt, On the steady flow between a rotating and a stationary naturally permeable disc, International Journal of Engineering Science 13(9-10) (1975) 869-879.

G. Batchelor, Note on a class of solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations representing steady rotationally-symmetric flow, Q. J. Mech. Appl. Maths 4 (1951) 29-41.

D.V. Krishna, D.R.V. Prasada Rao, A.S. Ramachandra Murthy, Hydromagnetic convection flow through a porous medium in axially varying pipe, Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics 79(4) (2006) 727. doi: 10.1007/s10891-006-0158-2.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-3/978-3-0364-1144-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 3, pp 13-21

doi: 10.4028/p-g0witu

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-10-23

Revised:
2022-01-12

Accepted:
2022-05-24

Online:
2022-09-01

Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.13.pdf

Fadlilatul Taufany , Rahmasari Nur Setyono , Abdul Wasi , I Wayan Restu Surya Krishna , Yeni Rahmawati , Ali Altway , Susianto , and Siti Nurkhamidah

¹Department of Chemical Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Keputih, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia

susianto@chem-eng.its.ac.id, dst_eureka@yahoo.uk

Keywords: Pretreatment, Electrodialysis, RO Brine

Abstract

Reverse Osmosis (RO) Brine is waste generated from the desalination process using the RO method. RO Brine is generally directly thrown back into the sea, even though it has the potential to be reprocessed because it still contains a variety of ions in it. The best method in RO Brine processing is Electrodialysis. But it has a problem of decreased membrane performance caused by the formation of fouling. The fouling problem can be overcome by doing a pretreatment process to eliminate impurities contained in RO Brine, one of which is . The existence of can trigger the formation of deposits. Therefore, it needs excess reagent Na 2 CO 3 with a certain amount to eliminate the whole . Currently, it isn't yet known the best pretreatment conditions that can eliminate impurities ions and produce high concentrations of NaCl . Pretreatment trials are needed in various variations of reagents amount to reduce impurities. The purpose of this study is to find out the best RO Brine pretreatment process that will later be used for the electrodialysis process to produce high NaCl recovery. The best results were obtained in the pretreatment process with variations NaOH excesses by and by from the ideal stoichiometry.

Introduction

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The process of desalination of water in the power plant industry uses many Reverse Osmosis (RO) methods [1]. Seawater is processed to produce freshwater that will later be used as boiler feedwater [2]. But of the processed RO becomes freshwater while the remaining is wastewater (water that still contains some ions in it) that is not used and discharged into the sea. The ions contained in such wastewater are [3]. The disposal of RO waste into the sea is a very unfortunate action because if processed, the RO Brine can produce industrial salt ( NaCl ) [4].

RO brine processing can be done by several methods that are broadly divided into membrane and thermal technology [5]. Thermal technology is a method by which saltwater is heated and then produced water vapor that will be condensed into clean water. This process can be done without the need for a pretreatment process and can eliminate existing biological impurities, but this process requires high energy, expensive tool manufacturing costs as well as serious corrosion, scaling, and fouling problems [6]. While membrane technology is the process by which saltwater will be separated into two phases, then there will only be one phase that can pass through the membrane. The phase shift is affected by the driving force, which occurs due to differences in pressure, concentration, temperature, and potential differences [7]. In its application, membrane processes require a pretreatment process and cannot eliminate biological impurities, but membrane processes require less energy and the cost of making tools is not too high when compared to the thermal process [8]. Compared to some other methods for processing RO Brine, processing methods utilizing membrane technology are often used and developed [9].

One membrane technology that can be used is electrodialysis (ED) [6]. ED was first developed in the 1950s. The function is to demineralize brackish water. Nowadays ED has been applicated in many
functions, for example, to reduce inorganic substances in water, in-home water treatment and water recovery for reverse osmosis reject [10]. Electrodialysis (ED) is a method to reduce ion or salt that is contained in solution by conducting electric current to the process. There are two different types of electrodes (cathode and anode) that will be used to transfer the electric current and each of it has a different electrical pole [11]. In between anode and cathode, there are stacks of specific membrane for the transfer of positive and negative ions [12]. Electrodialysis methods can eliminate TDS up to [13]. It has lower energy consumption [14] and higher membrane life [6][15]. However, in membrane technologies such as ED, major types of IEMs fouling that are commonly found are: biofouling and colloidal [16][17]. Membrane biofouling is made up by the attachment of microorganisms which are mainly bacteria to the membrane surface, followed by their growth and also multiplication, in this way it can eventually begin to form a biofilm on the membrane surface [18]. The electrical efficiency used to decrease over time caused by the formation of deposits on one side of the membrane (fouling). Deposits on the membrane (fouling) will decrease the limiting current, causing a decrease in electrodialysis performance. Fouling can be caused by a buildup of neutral or colloidal material resulting from ion exchange [19]. With reduced fouling in the membrane, the performance of the membrane will become lighter so that it will reduce the energy consumption used and can obtain higher NaCl purity [13]. To prevent fouling, an effective pretreatment process is needed in the solution that will be used as a feed in the electrodialysis process to remove ion impurities.

Materials and Methods

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Materials. RO Brine is obtained from Paiton Power Plant, East Java, Indonesia. Reagents for the pretreatment process consist of sodium bicarbonate Pro Analyst, sodium hydroxide Pro Analyst, barium chloride Pro Analyst, Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) , flocculant accofloc type A310, filter paper Whatman which sized , conventional filter paper and HCl solution 0.1 M .

Methods. Before pretreatment, the ion content in the solution RO Brine is analyzed to find out the amounts of reagents that must be added to the feed (RO Brine). The pretreatment process consists of 3 stages [20]. The first stage is the addition of NaOH solution with a variation of excesses of in the feed until the formation of deposits and with stirring for 1 hour. Then the results of the first stage are filtered with Whatman filter paper . The second stage of pretreatment is the addition of a solution of with an excess amount of on the feed in a temperature condition of to precipitate ions into deposits with stirring for 1 hour. PAC is added slowly as a coagulant on a feed that has gone through the second pretreatment stage with stirring for 15 minutes. The precipitation process is carried out for 30 minutes until the sediment collects below. Then the solution of the results of the second stage of pretreatment is filtered with conventional filter paper. The third pretreatment stage is the addition of solution with the amount according to the calculation of stoichiometry on the feed that has gone through the second pretreatment stage with stirring for 50 minutes until deposits are formed. Once the precipitate is formed, the solution is filtered using conventional filter paper. Then do a pH check on the solution of pretreatment results. If obtained a pH value of , it is necessary to add HCl to the solution of pretreatment results so that the pH of the solution becomes 5 . For the addition of NaOH and reagents, variations were made with excesses of and for NaOH and excesses of and for solutions. This variation aims to determine the amount of the most effective reagent that must be added to the pretreatment process in order to produce the least impurities. For every reagent, the excesses were calculated from the ideal stoichiometry. At the end of the pretreatment process, an analysis of the content of ion impurities in the solution of pretreatment results and these results are compared to all variables to determine the best pretreatment conditions.

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.13.pdf

Analysis of RO Brine's ion composition. The composition of impurities of RO Brine as feed pretreatment process is analyzed by several methods [21] [22]. Some of the impurities ions that have large amounts on RO Brine are and . The results of the analysis of the ion content are described in Table 1. It can be seen that the largest composition of RO Brine is and ions where both ions will later be recovered by electrodialysis process to produce a solution with high NaCl content as an industrial salt feed. The results of the analysis of the RO Brine solution to be used have a lower composition of ion impurities compared to other authors' reports [23].

Table 1. Composition of RO Brine

Component | Composition [ppm] | Method of Analysis
Ca²⁺ | 116,67 | Complexometric
Mg²⁺ | 417,56 | Complexometric
Na⁺ | 8725 | Flame Photometry
Cl⁻ | 27550 | Argentometry
SO₄²⁻ | 348,49 | Spectrophotometry
K⁺ | 132,78 | Flame Photometry
CO₃²⁻ | 0,6 | Alkalimetry
TDS | 38500 | Gravimetry

Electrodialysis is a process of separation using a membrane [24]. In general, membrane electrodialysis has certain specifications and restrictions for each ion impurities as described in Table 2. The purpose of the pretreatment process is to eliminate the ion impurities content to close to the requirements of the main composition of membrane electrodialysis cells [20]. From Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that the ion content of and contained in RO brine not met the requirement. So, it needs to be processed by pretreatment with several variables to reduce impurities by the addition of NaOH and reagents.

Table 2. Main Requirements Composition of Membrane Electrolysis

Ca²⁺ | Mg²⁺ | Na⁺ | Cl⁻ | SO₄²⁻
Ca²⁺ + Mg²⁺ < 20 ppb | 118 g/L | 182 g/L | 8 g/L |

(Casas et.al, 2012, [23])
The influence of reagent amount for impurities degradation. The pretreatment process is carried out with three stages of the process. In the first stage, NaOH reagents will be added to remove and impurities [25]. Then the second stage is the addition of reagents to remove impurities [25]. And the third stage is the addition of reagents to remove impurities [20]. Variations in the addition of reagent excesses are carried out in the first and second stages of pretreatment, namely in the addition of NaOH solution and solution. For NaOH solutions, excesses vary by (without excesses), , and . As for the solution carried out excess variations of (without excesses), 20%, and 30%. In previous research data [20] found that
to eliminate calcium content, it takes the addition of excess reagent by above stoichiometric calculations. The effect of adding excesses of NaOH and reagents to ion impurities is shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3.

The addition of NaOH to the pretreatment process aims to remove calcium carbonate solids and to neutralize carbonic acid. The addition of this reagent is also to eliminate the impurities of . The reactions that occur are as follows:

This addition can be used to handle RO Brine that has a high carbon and low calcium. In addition, the addition of NaOH also aims to increase the pH of the solution to achieve the formation of solids when the solution is added with the reagent [20]. For NaOH reagents, the analysis's results of the first stage pretreatment can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3. Effect of NaOH Reagent Addition on Ion Reduction

RO Brine | NaOH Excesses 0% | NaOH Excesses 15% | NaOH Excesses 25%
417,56 | 116,28 | 73,05 | 100,94

From Table 3, it can be known the value of the ion content of after the addition of NaOH reagents with variations in excesses of , excesses of , and excesses of . When compared with the value of the content of before the addition of NaOH reagents, it was obtained that the ion content of in all excess variations decreased. But from the variation given, the best results obtained on the variation in the addition of NaOH reagent excesses , this is indicated by a decrease in the ion content of from the beginning of 417.56 ppm to 73.05 ppm . This value is the smallest value when compared to the value of the ion content of in the variation in the addition of NaOH reagents excesses and excesses .

Figure 1. Decrease of Ion with Variations of NaOH Addition

Figure 1. Figure 1. Decrease of Ion with Variations of NaOH Addition

Based on Fig. 1, it can be compared the percentage of the decrease in ions where NaOH excesses can decrease the ion by , for variations NaOH excesses can decrease ion to and for variations NaOH excesses can reduce ion to . According to Table 2, it has been explained that the impurities content for the ion to match the main composition requirements of the membrane electrolysis cell by , therefore a
further pretreatment process is needed to reduce the content of . The solubility of magnesium salts is high in seawater [26][27]. So that the magnesium is not completely precipitated when the NaOH solution is added and the remaining ion impurities content is higher compared to the target that must be achieved.

In addition to reducing the ion, NaOH reagents also react with ions. The effect of adding NaOH reagents on the amount of content in RO Brine solution is presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Effect of NaOH Reagent Addition on Ion Reduction

RO Brine | NaOH Excesses 0% | NaOH Excesses 15% | NaOH Excesses 25%
0,6 | 0,0003 | 0,0000 | 0,0000

From Table 4, it can be known the value of the content of ions after the addition of NaOH reagents with variations in excesses , excesses , and excesses . When compared with the value of the content of ions before the addition of NaOH reagents, it is obtained the result that the content of ions decreased, even obtained the results of ion content dropped to reach 0 ppm. From the variation given, the best results obtained on the variation in the addition of NaOH reagents excesses of and , this is indicated by a decrease in the content of ions until reach 0 ppm . Meanwhile, in the variation of the addition of NaOH reagents excesses of obtained results of 0.00009 ppm .

Figure 2. Decrease of Ion with Variations of NaOH Addition

Figure 2. Figure 2. Decrease of Ion with Variations of NaOH Addition

Based on Fig. 2, it can be compared the percentage of the decrease in ions where NaOH excesses can decrease ions by , for variations NaOH excesses can decrease ions to and for variations NaOH excesses can decrease ions to . Due to the relatively low initial amount of impurity ions, the addition of reagents with excess variations did not have a significant difference. However, the NaOH reagent is used to remove 2 types of impurity ions ( and ), the best NaOH reagent excess is in the excess variation. This is due to the presence of sedimentation (equation 1 and 2) with the addition of NaOH excess , the impurities ions can react more due to the presence of ionic force between the RO Brine particles [20].

According to Table 2, a pretreatment process is needed to reduce the content of . One of the ways to reduce the content of is by adding reagents . The addition of to react with calcium ions to form thus avoiding the formation of deposits. The reactions that occur are as follows:

This addition can be used to handle RO Brine with high alkalinity and low carbon content [20].

Table 5. Effect of Reagent Addition on Ion Reduction

RO Brine | Na₂CO₃ Excesses 0% | Na₂CO₃ Excesses 20% | Na₂CO₃ Excesses 30%
116,67 | 19,16 | 17,11 | 14,99

From Table 5 can be known the value of the ion content of after the addition of reagents with variations in excesses , excesses , and excesses . When compared with the value of the ion content of before the addition, it is obtained that the ion content of decreased. From the variation given, the best results obtained on the variation in the addition of reagents excesses , this is indicated by a decrease in the ion content of to 14.99 ppm. This value is a smaller value when compared to the value of the ion content in the variation of the addition of reagent excesses and excesses .

Figure 3. Decrease of Ion with Variations of Addition

Figure 3. Figure 3. Decrease of Ion with Variations of Addition

Based on Fig. 3, it can be compared the percentage of the decrease in ions where excesses can decrease the ion by , for variations excesses can decrease the ion to and for variations excesses can decrease the ion to .

Then in the third stage of pretreatment process is done the addition of reagent to reduce the content of ions. The addition of is done to remove the sulfate content thereby reducing calcium solids or non-carbonate solids by forming deposits. The reaction is as follows [20]:

Table 6 presented the results of analysis of content in results solution of pretreatment:

Table 6. Effect of Reagent Addition on Ion Reduction

Experiment | SO₄²⁻ content [ppm]
1 | 13,8203
2 | 14,0484
3 | 13,4735
Average | 13,7807

From Table 6 can be known the value of the ion content of after the addition of reagent with excesses, decreased when compared to the initial content of in Table 1. In the third stage pretreatment, the addition of reagent was not using some variations of excesses because the effectiveness of Reagent to reduce impurities has reached .

Summary

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The addition of , and as a reagent in the pretreatment process successfully decrease the impurities ion in RO Brine. To prevent fouling, an effective pretreatment process is needed in the solution that will be used as a feed in the electrodialysis process to remove ion impurities. The best pretreatment methods are obtained with the excess variation of NaOH reagents by by using PAC coagulants, and flocculant and excesses by (without excesses). This is indicated by a decrease in the ion content of by and by after the addition of NaOH reagents with excesses of . Ion experienced a decrease of after the addition of reagent with excesses using PAC coagulant and flocculant. Then ion decreased by after the addition of reagent (without excesses).

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C. Pretreatment, "For Lenntech," no. October, 2013.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-3/978-3-0364-1144-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 3, pp 23-34

doi: 10.4028/p-rod566

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-08-23

Revised:
2021-11-10

Accepted:
2021-11-22

Online:
2022-09-01

Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.23.pdf

Tran Vinh Hung , Ta Van Ranh , Tran Thi Van Nga , Le Hong Ky

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics, PHENIKAA University, Hanoi 12116, Vietnam

PHENIKAA Research and Technology Institute (PRATI), A&A Green Phoenix Group JSC, No.

167 Hoang Ngan, Trung Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi 11313, Vietnam

Vinh Long University of Technology Education, Vietnam

Faculty of Mechanical engineering, University of Transport and Communications, Vietnam

hung.tranvinh@phenikaa-uni.edu.vn, ranhtv@vlute.edu.vn, ngattv@utc.edu.vn, kylh@vlute.edu.vn

Keywords: Tensile Strength, Elongation, Yield Limit, Rotary Friction Welding, Welding material

Abstract

This paper presents the results of research and test of the self-designed and manufactured rotary friction welding machine. Tensile test results show that the tensile strength of the material after welding is satisfactory according to the standards of the material; the elongation is within the elongation limit of the welding specimen; the yield limit is greater than the minimum yield limit of the material. The parameters of the welding equipment are guaranteed according to the design requirements.

Introduction

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Friction welding is the welding method with the most stable and durable welded joint structure compared with the method of fusion welding of the material. In addition to the outstanding advantage in terms of ensuring the mechanical properties of the welded joint, an advantage that other welding methods cannot do is to connect different materials through the process of friction, the materials are diffused into each other. With rotary friction welding, when two parts rotate relative to each other, generating frictional heat that melts the material at the contact area, the two parts are pressed together to create a welded joint [1-3], [14-18], Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Operating principle of rotary friction welding machine

Fig. 1. Operating principle of rotary friction welding machine

In the 60s of the twentieth century, rotary friction welding developed strongly in the United States. Most of the equipment manufactured during this period was researched by AMF, Caterpillar, and Rockwell International companies [1-3]. Currently, rotary friction welding is strongly developed to meet the increasing needs of the manufacturing industry. At universities, a lot of research on rotary friction welding has been carried out in various aspects. Several in-depth studies on rotary friction have been carried out in the world. Researches on rotary friction welding machines: Gourav sardana and Ajay Lohan, have researched special fixture for friction welding on lathe machine [1]; Jagroop Singh, Karamdeep Singh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, ACEM, Kapur thala, Punjab, India have researched rotary friction welding on lathe machine with stailstock [2]; P. A. Thakare, Lt Randheer Singh designed and developed the micro rotary friction welding machine and investigated the friction welding parameters for similar materials [3]. Researches on welding of different materials
includes: H. Ochi, working at Welding Research Center, Osaka Technical Research Institute, Japan, together with K. Ogawa studied the properties of the welds of aluminum alloy and steel. [27]; Z.Lindemann, K. Skalski, W. Wosin Ski, and J. Zimmerman studied the thermo-mechanical phenomenon in the process of friction welding of corundum ceramics and aluminium [14]; Eder Paduan Alves, Francisco Piorino Neto, Chen Ying An, Euclides Castorino da Silva conducted an experimental investigation of temperature during rotary friction welding of AA1050 aluminum with AISI 304 stainless steel [24]; M. B. Uday, M. N. Ahmad Fauzi, Zuhailawati H, A.B. Ismail of University of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Malaysia, studied the effect of welding speed on the mechanical strength of friction welded joint of YSZ-Alumina composite and 6061 aluminum alloy [5]. Research on thermo-mechanical phenomena in the process of rotary friction welding includes authors with the following published work: Ruma Mohd Abdul Wahed, Mohammed Farhan studied the effect of external heating of the friction welded joint [17]; M. B. Uday, M. N. Ahmad Fauzi, Zuhailawati H, A.B. Ismail of University of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Malaysia, studied the effect of welding speed on the mechanical strength of friction welded joint of YSZ-Alumina composite and 6061 aluminum alloy [5]. Jatinder Gill, Jagdev Singh experimentally studied the effect of heating time on the mechanical properties of nylon joints producced by friction welding [18]; Eder Paduan Alves, Chen Ying An conducted an experimental determination of temperature during rotary friction welding of dissimilar materials published in Scientific and Engineering Publishing Company [15]; Ali Moarrefzadeh studied the effect of heat in the friction welding process, published in Journal of Mechanical Engineering 2012 [16]. Evaluation of rotary friction welding includes the typical authors and works such as G.J. Baxter, M. Preuss and P.J. Withers at Manchester Institute of Natural Materials Research, UK, studied inertial friction welding of nickel base superalloys for aerospace applications [4]; Piaar Nagar, D. Ananthapadmanaban studied the friction weldability of low carbon steel with stainless steel and aluminum with copper [30]; P. Shiva Shankar, L. Suresh Kumar, N. Ravinder Reddy used Taguchi method to conduct an experimental investigation and analyze the friction welding parameters for Cu Zn28 copper alloy [6]; Amit Handa, Vikas Chawla made a review to evaluate friction welding [37]; Veerabhadrappa Algur1, Kabadi, Ganechari and Sharanabasappa conducted an experimental investigation on friction characteristics of modified ZA-27 alloy using taguchi technique [7]; Amit Handa Punjub, Vikas Chawla Dav conducted an experimental study on mechanical properties of friction welded AISI 1021 steels [8]; Mumin Sahin and Cenk Misirli studied the mechanical and metallurgical properties of Friction Welded Aluminium Joints [31]; Ali. Moarrefzadeh performed a Numerical Modeling of Friction Welding Process [38]; The research team of Baiju Sasidharan, Dr.K.P.Narayanan, R. Arivazhakan studied the influence of interface surface geometries in the tensile characteristics of friction welded joints from aluminium alloys [20,32].

Friction welding is one of the environmentally friendly welding methods. The main source of welding energy is the heat source due to friction between the contacting surfaces of the welding parts. This heat source causes the surface of the part to flow intensely in the structure of the material, a new feature in current biomechanical engineering. The welding principle is completely new, so it needs a lot of research from basic to in-depth. The material organization at the welded joints changes compared to the original material, and nanostructures can be achieved, which is very significant in the new materials industry. The requirement for experimental equipment is simple, and the theoretical basis encapsulated in mechanical engineering, which is very suitable for current research conditions in universities.

Models of Rotary Friction Welding Machines Designed and Manufactured

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Based on the reference to the studies [1-3], [6-8] and the actual working conditions of the research team, after analyzing the options, an operating principle of the rotary friction welding machine was selected as Fig. 1, 2D design model as Fig. 2. Main parameters typical for welding process include: spindle rotation speed, friction pressure and friction time, forging pressure and forging time, upset length.

Fig. 2 2D design model of rotary friction welding machine

Fig. 2. 2D design model of rotary friction welding machine

Fig. 2 and Fig. 3a show that when the rotation speed reaches a given speed , hydraulic action causes two surfaces to rub against each other. Then the torque increases, and when the two frictional surfaces generate heat, the torque decreases. This stage is the friction phase. During the friction phase, the length of the workpiece is shortened by a small amount. When the friction surface has material overflow, the brake mechanism makes the rotation speed stop suddenly. During breaking the torque is maximum and the torque is zero when the rotation speed is zero. This is the braking phase. The braking phase takes place as quickly as possible (if the braking time is large, the heat reduction of the welded joint is limited). When the braking phase is about to end, the pressure should be increased so that the two surfaces diffuse intensely into each other. This stage is the forging phase. The steps to perform the rotary friction welding process are shown in Fig. 3b.

Fig. 3 Parameters and phases of rotary friction welding process

Fig. 3. Parameters and phases of rotary friction welding process

The rotary friction welding machine is manufactured (Fig. 4) fitted with a solenoid valve to control the hydraulic system (principle shown in Fig. 2).

Fig. 4 The rotary friction welding machine is manufactured

Fig. 4. The rotary friction welding machine is manufactured

Experiments

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Sample for experiment. Test specimens of solid circular shape, with a diameter of 14 mm and a length of 100 mm , are made of CT3 steel with strength limits according to ГOCT 380-89 standard as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of CT3 steel

Standard
Mechanical properties

Yield limit
(N/mm2)
Tensile Strength
(N/mm2)
Elongation
(%)

ΓΟCΤ 380 - 89
225 min
373 ÷ 461
22 min

Measuring instruments. In the study, the CHT4106 universal tensile strength testing machine was used to measure the mechanical properties of the samples after rotary friction welding.

Fig. 5 HT4106 model universal compression tensile machine

Fig. 5. HT4106 model universal compression tensile machine

HT4106 model universal compression tensile machine with load force of 1000 kN , can perform tensile, compression, bending and cutting tests. Test standards are in accordance with ISO, ASTM, etc. With PowerTest software of SANS, all data and management are in the database, easy to access and transfer to other softwares such as Excel. Parameters such as yield limit, strength limit, relative elongation, elastic modulus, etc. can be measured or calculated automatically. The machine also determines the bending resistance of metal and can display 3 curves at the same time: stressdeformation, force-time, force-elongation of the test specimen.

Experimental design. Test parameters include: rotation speed of workpiece, friction force, friction time, forging time, forging force, upset length. In which, there are 2 fixed parameters (rotation speed of workpiece , upset length ), 2 variable parameters that can be controlled (axial pressure in the friction stage , axial pressure in the forging stage ) and 2 calculated dependent parameters: friction time , forging time .

Table 2. Input parameters of the rotary friction welding test specimen

No | Axial pressure at stages | Symbol | Design variable value | Unit
|  | Nature | Encode | (-1) | (0) | (+1) |
1 | Friction | P1 | A | 50 | 70 | 90 | N/mm²
2 | Forging | P2 | B | 110 | 130 | 150 | N/mm²

The second-order symmetric mixed quadratic experimental planning of the form B with the polynomial regression equation has the general form as formula (1):

The study has chosen the second-order symmetric mixed planning of the form B, the experiment at the center of 2 to help keep the number of experiments to a minimum. Natural form planning matrix is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Experimental planning matrix with input parameters

Test
specimen
n
(rpm)
Axial pressing force
Time
l
(mm)

P1
(N/mm²)
P2
(N/mm²)
t1
(s)
t2
(s)

1
1.450
50
110
50
7
4

2
1.450
90
110
36
7
4

3
1.450
50
150
50
5
4

4
1.450
90
150
36
5
4

5
1.450
50
130
50
6
4

6
1.450
90
130
36
6
4

7
1.450
70
110
43
7
4

8
1.450
70
150
43
5
4

9
1.450
70
130
43
6
4

10
1.450
70
130
43
6
4

Conducting experiments. The samples are cut to length and cleaned to remove oil, grease, etc. and ensure a flat, smooth, swarf-free work surface so that the two surfaces are in even contact, good friction, and faster heating time. 10 experiments with the same parameters are carried out as shown in Table 3 according to the basic stages: Friction process (Fig. 6) and Forging process (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6 Friction process

Fig. 6. Friction process

Fig. 7 Forging process (upset)

Fig. 7. Forging process (upset)

Results and Discussion

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After the rotary friction welding equipment is manufactured and the above samples are tested, it shows that the friction welding equipment gets the set requirements: high rigidity, low vibration
during operation, the main shaft motor ensuring the operating capacity and reaching the number of revolutions according to the design requirements, the sliding table mechanism operating smoothly and ensuring stability during the welding process, the hydraulic system ensuring the original design pressure.

According to the ASTM E8 standard, the samples after rotary friction welding (Fig. 8) are machined by turning method before the tensile test (Fig. 9). The sample after tensile test to determine mechanical properties is shown in Fig.10.

Fig. 8 CT3 steel welding product

Fig. 8. CT3 steel welding product

Fig. 9 Tensile test specimen according to ASTM E8 standard

Fig. 9. Tensile test specimen according to ASTM E8 standard

Fig. 10 Sample after tensile test

Fig. 10. Sample after tensile test

The number of repeated experiments of the planning was calculated and selected as 3 . CHT4106 devices were used to measure the strength limit, yield limit and calculate the relative elongation with the results table as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Tensile test results

Test specimen | Tensile strength, σb (N/mm²) | Elongation, δ (%) | Yield limit, σ0.2 (N/mm²)
1 | 401,7 | 16,7 | 281,6
2 | 401,7 | 17,2 | 281,6
3 | 403,7 | 17,1 | 284,2
4 | 407,9 | 17,8 | 286,6
5 | 403,5 | 16,9 | 283,7
6 | 407,2 | 17,5 | 284,2
7 | 406,7 | 16,9 | 281,8
8 | 405,6 | 16,8 | 282,5
9 | 404,7 | 16,3 | 281,2
10 | 404,2 | 16,5 | 281,7

The relative elongation after break is calculated by the formula:
The relative contractility is calculated by the formula:
In which:
: Initial session length.
: Session length at the end
: Total length of the original sample.
: Sample length at the end.
: Original cross-sectional area of the parallel section.
: Minimum cross-sectional area after cutting.
Tensile strength . Synthesis and analysis of parameters affecting tensile strength are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Parameters affecting tensile strength

Term | Coef | SE Coef | T-Value | P-Value
Constant | 405.150 | 0.161 | 2511.87 | 0.000
P1 | 1.061 | 0.132 | 8.06 | 0.000
P2 | 0.867 | 0.132 | 6.58 | 0.000
P1*P1 | -1.189 | 0.208 | -5.71 | 0.000
P1*P2 | 0.692 | 0.161 | 4.29 | 0.000

The regression equation characterizing for the malfunction of the axial pressing force of friction and forging parts when welding friction can only be natural as follows:

From here, graphs are built to show the influence of 2 input parameters on the tensile strength of the sample as shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Tensile strength analysis results

Fig. 11. Tensile strength analysis results

From the results of the analysis we realize that the higher the friction, the higher the strength, and when the maximum value is reached, it decreases. As the forging element increases, the tensile strength of the detail will increase steadily.

Elongation . Synthesis and analysis of parameters affecting elongation are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Parameters affecting elongation

Term | Coef | SE Coef | T-Value | P-Value
Constant | 16.6024 | 0.0548 | 303.02 | 0.000
P1 | 0.3222 | 0.0374 | 8.61 | 0.000
P2 | 0.1500 | 0.0374 | 4.01 | 0.000
P1*P1 | 0.4119 | 0.0600 | 6.86 | 0.000
P2*P2 | 0.1619 | 0.0600 | 2.70 | 0.012

The regression equation characterizing the influence of axial pressure of friction and forging parts when welding friction to the elongation of the sample of the natural form is as follows:

From here, graphs are built to showthe influence of 2 input parameters on the elongation of the sample as shown in Fig 12.

From the results of the analysis, it is noticed that the higher the friction, the longer the elongation will decrease to the point of urination will increase. As the Forging factor increases, the elongation of the parts tends to increase but will initially decrease when it comes to the pole, which will gradually increase.

Fig. 12 Elongation analysis results

Fig. 12. Elongation analysis results

Yield limit analysis . Synthesis and analysis of parameters affecting yield limit analysis are shown in table 13.

Table 7. Parameters affecting the yield limit

Term | Coef | SE Coef | T-Value | P-Value
Constant | 281.558 | 0.083 | 3407.21 | 0.000
P1 | 0.6111 | 0.0675 | 9.06 | 0.000
P2 | 1.3500 | 0.0675 | 20.01 | 0.000
P1*P1 | 1.942 | 0.107 | 18.20 | 0.000
P1*P2 | 0.2667 | 0.0826 | 3.23 | 0.003

The regression equation characterizing for the influence of axial pressing force of friction and forging parts when friction welding arrives yield limit analysis samples of natural form is as follows:

From here, graphs are built to show the influence of 2 input parameters on yield limit analysis of the sample as shown in Fig. 13.

Fig. 13 Analysis results yield limit analysis

Fig. 13. Analysis results yield limit analysis

From the chart, it is noticed that the higher the friction, the lower yield limit. Especially, when it decreases to the minimized value, it tends to increase again. The more the forging factor increases, the yield limit increases.

Tensile test results with mechanical properties are synthesized and compared with the mechanical properties of the sample material (Table 1), with the table as shown inTable 8.

Table 8. Table comparing the properties of the welding specimen with that of the material

Tensile strength (N/mm²) | Elongation (%) | Yield limit (N/mm²)
Standard | Experiment | Standard | Experiment | Standard | Experiment
373÷461 | 401.7÷407.9 | 22 min | 16.3÷17.8 | 225 min | 281.2÷286.6

Conclusion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.23.pdf

The rotary friction welding machine has been successfully researched and manufactured, put to the test and achieved good results. The rotation speed of the part is stable and ensures the maximum number of revolutions required for friction welding is 1450 rpm . The hydraulic cylinder's propulsion mechanism is stable and generates pressure in accordance with the requirements of each material . The structure of the welding machine is firm, ensuring stability during operation. Transmission sliding table mechanism is smooth and stable. Materials with the same properties can be welded, meeting the set requirements.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.23.pdf

Gourav sardana, Ajay Lohan, Friction Welding on Lathe Machine with special Fixture, International Journal of Innovations in Engineering and Technology (IJIET) Vol. 2 Issue 3 June 2013.

Jagroop Singh, Karamdeep Singh, Fabrication of Friction Welding on Centre Lathe: A Case Study, IJIET Vol. 4, IssuE2, May- ocTobER2014.

P A Thakare, Lt Randheer Singh, Design and Development of Micro Friction Welding Machine and Investigation of Welding Parameters for Similar Materials, International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 5, Issue 6, June-2014.

Ahmet CAN, G.J. Baxter, M. Preuss and P.J, Research on the inertia friction welding of nickel base superalloys for aerospace applications studied by G.J. Baxter, M. Preuss and P.J. Withers at Manchester Institute of Natural Materials Research, UK;

M. B. Uday, M.N. Ahmad Fauzi, Zuhailawati H., A.B. Ismail, Effect of welding speed on mechanical strength of friction welded joint of YSZ-Alumina composite and 6061 Aluminum Alloy, Materials Science and Engineering A 528 (2011) 4753-4760

P. Shiva Shankar, L. Suresh Kumar, N. Ravinder Reddy, Experimental investigation and stastical analysis of the friction welding parameters for the copper alloy - cu zn28 using taguchi method, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, eISSN: 2319-1163 pISSN: 23217308.

Veerabhadrappa Algur1, Kabadi, Ganechari and Sharanabasappa, Experimental investigation on friction characteristics of modified ZA-27 alloy using taguchi technique, IJMERR, Vol. 3, No. 4, October 2014.

Amit Handa punjub, Vikas Chawla Dav, Experimenttal study of mechanical properties of friction welded AISI 1021 steels, Sadhana, Vol. 38, Part 6, December 2013, pp. 1407-1419. © Indian Academy of Sciences.

A. Kurt, I. Uygur, and U. Paylasan, Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, 104-S, May 2011, vol. 90.

P. Shiva Shankar, L. Suresh Kumar, N. Ravinder Reddy, Experimental investigation and stastical analysis of the friction welding parameters for the copper alloy - cu zn28 using taguchi method, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology eISSN: 2319-1163 | pISSN: 23217308.

P Sathiya, S Aravindan, A Noorul haq, K panneerselvam, Optimization of friction welding parameters using simulated annealing, IJEMS, Vol.13, February 2006, pp. 37-44.

Sirajuddin Elyas Khany, K.N.Krishnan, Mohd Abdul Wahed, Study of Transient Temperature Distribution in a Friction Welding Process and its effects on its Joints, International Journal Of Computational Engineering Research () Vol. 2 Issue. 5.

Prashant Rashmikant Pandya, Prof. Amol Bagesar, Prof. Jignesh Patel, Effect Of Welding Parameters On Burn-Off Length For Friction Welding Of Inconel 718 And SS 304 For Production Of Bimetal Poppet Exhaust Valve, IJSRD - International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol. 2, Issue 04, 2014

Z. Z. Lindemann, K. Skalski, W. Włosinski, and J. Zimmerman, Thermo-mechanical phenomena in The Process of Friction Welding of Corundum Ceramics and Aluminium, Bulletin of The Polish Academy of Sciences Technical Sciences Vol. 54, No. 1, 2006.

Eder Paduan Alves, Chen Ying An, Francisco Piorino Neto, Eduardo dos Ferro Santos, Experimental Determination of Temperature during Rotary Friction Welding of Dissimilar Materials, 2012 Science and Engineering Publishing Company.

Ali. Moarrefzadeh, Study of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in Friction Welding Process, Vol. 2 Issue. 5. journal of mechanical engineering vol. 1, no. 1, january 2012.

Ruma Mohd Abdul Wahed, Mohammed Farhan, A Study on the Effect of External Heating of the Friction Welded Joint, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2013.

Jatinder Gill, Jagdev Singh, Experimental study on the effect of heating time on mechanical properties of nylon-6 joints produced by friction welding, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN 2249-8974.

Ahmet Can, Mümin Şahin, Mahmut Küçük, Modelling of friction welding, international scientific conference 19-20 november 2010, gabrovo.

Baiju Sasidharan, Dr.K.P.Narayanan, R.Arivazhakan, Influence of Interface Surface Geometries In The Tensile Characteristics Of Friction Welded Joints From Aluminium Alloys, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology An ISO 3297: 2007 Certified Organization, Volume 2, Special Issue 1, December 2013.

Eder Paduan Alves, Chen Ying An, Francisco Piorino Neto, Eduardo Ferro dos Santos, Experimental Determination of Temperature during Rotary Friction Welding of Dissimilar Materials, Frontiers in Aerospace Engineering Vol. 1 Iss. 1, November 2012.

Jatinder Gill, Jagdev Singh, Experimental study on the effect of heating

time on mechanical properties of nylon-6 joints produced by friction welding, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN2249-8974.

Eder Paduan Alves, Francisco Piorino Neto, Chen Ying An, Euclides Castorino da Silva, Experimental Determination of Temperature During Rotary Friction Welding of AA1050 Aluminum with AISI 304 Stainless Steel, Vol 4, No 1, pp.61-67, Jan, Mar, 2012.

Sirajuddin Elyas Khany, K.N.Krishnan, Mohd Abdul Wahed, Study of Transient Temperature Distribution in a Friction Welding Process and its effects on its Joints, International Journal Of Computational Engineering Research () Vol. 2 Issue. 5.

Ruma, Mohd Abdul Wahed, Mohammed farhan, A Study on the Effect of External Heating of the Friction Welded Joint, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2013.

H. Ochi, K. Ogawa, Friction Welding of Aluminum Alloy and Steel, International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering Vol. 8, No. 2, June 1998 (ISSN 1053-5381).

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Piaar Nagar, Chennai - 119, D. Ananthapadmanaban, Studies on friction weldability of low Carbon Steel with Stainless Steel and Aluminium with Copper.

Mumin Sahin and Cenk Misirli, Mechanical and Metalurgical Properties of Friction Welded Aluminium Joints, 24 trang.

Baiju Sasidharan, Dr.K.P.Narayanan, R.Arivazhakan, Influence of Interface Surface Geometries In The Tensile Characteristics Of Friction Welded Joints From Aluminium Alloys, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology An ISO 3297: 2007 Certified Organization, Volume 2, Special Issue 1, December 2013.

Song Yu-lai, Liu Yao-hui, Zhu Xian-yong, Yu Si-rong, Zhang Ying-bo, Strength distribution at interface of rotary-friction-welded aluminum to nodular cast iron, Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China 18 (2008) 14-18.

K. Boonseng, S. Chainarong, C. Meengam, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Welding in SSM356 Aluminium Alloys, International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering Research, Volume 2, No.4, April 2014.

G.P.Rajamani,M .S.Shunmuga Man DK.P.Rao, Parameter Optimization and Properties of Friction Welded Quenched and Tempered Steel, 226-S, I June 1992.

Jay Prakash Gavade, R.D. Rajopadhye, N.D.Jadhav, Dr. Prakash Ramdasi, A review on effects of processing parameters on mechanical behavior of different metals joined by continuous drive friction welding, IJESR/April 2013/ Vol-3/Issue-4/2777-2784, ISSN 2277-2685.

Amit Handa, Vikas Chawla, Friction Welding - A Review, , Vol. 1, No. 2, 34-38, 2014.

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Dr K. Narasimha Murthy, Dr V.P. Raghupathy, Mr D. Sethuram, Two Day workshop on Friction Welding & Friction Stir Welding 24 & 25 November, 2011, International Center for Advancement of Manufacturing Technology.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 3, pp 35-40

doi: 10.4028/p-o984an

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-09-28

Revised:
2021-11-10

Accepted:
2021-11-22

Online:
2022-09-01

The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

Patrick Townsend , Juan-Carlos Suárez , Álvaro Rodríguez-Ortíz

ESPOL, Guayaquil, Ecuador

UPM, Madrid, Spain

*aptownsen@espol.edu.ec, bjuancarlos.suarez@upm.es, calvaro.rodriguez@upm.es

Keywords: Slamming, GFRP, Viscoelastic, ship, impact

Abstract

The use of viscoelastic sheets in the hull of vessels built from GFRP has been raised in previous works as an option to protect the vessel from the destructive damage of slamming. The present work proposes its use in boats previously built by adhering to the outside of the hulls of the ships. Its installation process is shown, and this new type of installation is compared. Through impact tests with GFRP panels, it is shown that the viscoelastic material maintains its property of absorbing slamming energy and protecting the interior of the laminate. Fatigue tests on the order of cycles are carried out to evaluate the impact force, the accelerations that deform the laminate and the virtual energy work imposed on the panel. This option shows that designers have a new option to protect the hull of already built boats.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

Since the world set out to protect the environment, multiple ways to do so have developed. The maintenance of ships built in glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) generates pollution which requires high investments so that they do not harm the surrounding environment. In the Galapagos Islands, there is a significant fleet of GFRP planing hull vessels. As these boats sail at high speeds, they must be light and cover long distances between islands to comply with tourist programs, this causes severe damage to the laminates of the hull in the bow due to the impact with the waves. Sailing at high speeds increases a phenomenon known as slamming [1]. This is a fatigue event on the material of the hull of the boat, which considerably reduces its useful life, making more frequent maintenance required within the nature reserve.

Vessels built with composite materials (with different combinations of reinforcing fibers and polymeric matrix) are more and more numerous, due to the good mechanical properties of these materials. Manufacturing with composite materials involves the placement of successive layers of reinforcing fibers (glass, carbon, polyaramid, etc.) that are impregnated with a resin that acts as a matrix, providing adhesion between the fibers, between the layers stacked in thickness and provides continuity to the laminated assembly. This means in practice that the hulls are built (together with other parts of the boat) by placing several layers, one on top of the other, until the total thickness of the laminate is obtained according to their structural stresses. The number of layers is associated with the structural resistance [ 2,3 ] or with the other parts of the boat (decks, bulkheads, etc.). A boat made of composite materials will weigh less than a boat made of steel or aluminum. The use of GFRP partially sacrifices some aspects of its structural strength. The capacity to respond to impacts, fatigue events and internal stresses is diminished, which is directly reflected in the extension of its useful life, in service [4].

On the other hand, because they are multilayer materials, it is possible to introduce some type of energy dissipation mechanism into the lamination sequence. In such a way that a viscoelastic sheet that goes inside the laminate has been proven to protect it from low energy impacts. In no case against ballistic impacts, which involve very high deformation rates in the material.

Slamming is a phenomenon that occurs during navigation, usually above . The boat begins to rise or support itself on the surface of the water, and when the weight of the ship and the pressure of the water become unbalanced, it causes the ship to sink back to the initial position producing an impact on the surface of the hull. This impact supposes a sudden contribution of energy, which can be increased by the waves. This energy must be absorbed by the hull material, which after the impact returns part of the energy (compliance restoration) [5].

The insertion of viscoelastic sheets inside GFRP panels has been studied extensively in a numerical way and according to our own research on specimens tested in the laboratory, the modification proposal gives results and is ready to go to ships [6-7]. Even its adherence is applicable to the theory of hybrid bonds in the case of these materials, in which the stresses generated at the ends of the adhesive bond influence the adjacent layer of the bond [8].

This time, it is proposed to analyze by means of fatigue tests, the behavior of the viscoelastic layer superimposed on the laminate to obtain the energy data that the viscoelastic absorbs and the protection it offers. the solution to the premature aging of the planing hull vessels and the way they are used in boats already built, would represent a great option for the tourism fleet in the Galapagos Islands and the world.

Viscoelastic Layers as Energy Dissipators in the Construction of GFRP Laminates

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

In the Galapagos Islands, there is an important fleet of planing hull vessels between 12 and 15 meters in length. They sail 4 hours between Puerto Ayora and Puerto Baquerizo Moreno at 22 knots in some cases. They carry tourists seated on the main deck on cushions. In this area of the Pacific Ocean, the wind level and wave height have a Beaufort scale of degree 4 half the year, and the other half with the arrival of the cold current from Antarctica there are several months of degree 5. The Captains must be attentive to the waves during the entire navigation, because at that speed and in these sea conditions, the impacts with the bottom of the hull are very strong. The noise of the impact even becomes a nuisance to the human ear when reaching levels of 90 dB .

The slamming phenomenon has the following specific characteristics: its non-linear character in which the domain of time and not frequency predominates, and that it is completely random. The slamming pressures for the type of vessel considered, according to the Classification Societies of ships, especially the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), consider that they range between the order of to depending on its longitudinal position at the bottom of the ship and by the curvature of the hull. Table 1 shows the characteristic data of the ship selected for experimentation.

Table 1 Characteristics of the ship at maximum load condition

Material | GFRP
L (length) | 13500 [mm]
Δ (displacement) | 9100 [kg]
B (breadth) | 4300 [mm]
T (deadrise angle) | 4,5 [°]
V (maximum speed) | 22 [Kn]

The hull of these vessels corresponds to laminates by impregnation of type ] with mat type isophtalic fabrics, at Ortoftalic, Woveng Robing Ortoftalica. In the nomenclature, it is described as the first layer, the fabric that goes outside the hull of the ship and the weight of the resin. Due to the type of manual construction, there is a high percentage of porosity of up to ( ), which is reflected in the beginning of damage due to slamming impacts during navigation. The micropores line up forming microcracks, to later appear as fractures inside the ship. In most cases it produces water leaks. In Fig. 1, the interior connection of the hull with the fore bulkhead of the selected ship is observed. In it you can clearly see the breaking line that is propagating because of the tensile stresses that occur inside due to the deformation.

Fig. 1 Slamming damage observed inside the vessel

Fig. 1. Slamming damage observed inside the vessel

Previous research considered including viscoelastic sheets within the laminate, that is to say, placed under the second layer of rowing fabric protecting the rest of the layers. They are not used in the entire hull of the boat, but more critical where the phenomenon of slamming has the greatest incidence. The impact area occurs both to port and starboard, which directly affects the laminate of the hull, producing microcracks that change the flexural stiffness of the structure. To achieve this behavior, the protection layers are manufactured in very thin thicknesses with the viscoelastic polymer, encapsulating it in cells of another much more rigid polymer, constraining the deformation capacity of the viscoelastic polymer in its two main directions, in the plane of the sheet. In this way, the property of the viscoelastic material of having a Poisson's ratio close to 0.50 is taken advantage of, that is, the relationship between the deformations that the material experiences when it is compressed in the thickness direction with the deformations in the two perpendicular directions in the plane of the sheet. A material with a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 essentially keeps the volume constant when it is deformed in one direction.

When a viscoelastic is deformed by an impact without restricting its directions, it is compressed until it can no longer absorb any more energy and then expands dissipating all the elastic energy stored. On the contrary, if its deformation (expansion) is constricted in its two main directions in the plane of the viscoelastic layer, encapsulating the viscoelastic material in closed cells formed by a more rigid polymer, the material is given a great storage capacity of Energy. The more the pressures due to impact increase, the stiffer the viscoelastic material becomes and consequently, the more energy it absorbs. Through this viscoelastic cell design, when the protection layer is placed within the composite material laminate, the stiffness of the material grows exponentially as the impact energy attempts to deform the ship's hull. The response is non-linear and instantaneous, with a large amount of energy being stored in the viscoelastic layer, which, however, does not transfer it to the rest of the laminate, but rather slowly dissipates it. In this way, it is possible to reduce the damage generated in the laminate by the impact of slamming, slowing down its progression and, consequently, making it possible to extend the useful life of the boat.

The present work proposes the placement of the viscoelastic sheet on the surface of a boat hull already built and in use. Through laboratory tests with GFRP specimens, observe the energy behavior of the impact and if the laminate is effectively protected. This would allow the use of viscoelastic sheets to be extended and spread more widely to improve the useful life of vessels. Fig. 2 shows the difference in a section of a ship's hull. in a) the viscoelastic sheet is inserted into the laminate which corresponds to its initial conception. In b) the proposal to adhere it to the laminate so that it does not affect the hydrodynamics of the boat and protects from damage by slamming.

Fig. 2 Cross section of the planing hull vessel with a viscoelastic sheet a) built new b) modified not new

Fig. 2. Cross section of the planing hull vessel with a viscoelastic sheet a) built new b) modified not new

Experimental observation of the protection of the superimposed viscoelastic Layer

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

For the experimental observation of the behavior of the viscoelastic sheet superimposed on the hull of a ship, 3 panels were manufactured with the same characteristics of the selected boat, and the superimposed viscoelastic layer was added. The panels to be tested for fatigue, reproducing the slamming impact, were mounted on a base of a Shaker-type vibrating equipment to deform them. This equipment, its base, the panel and the superimposed viscoelastic sheet, can be seen in Fig 3.

Fig. 3 Impact vibrator with the test panel placed on the top.

Fig. 3. Impact vibrator with the test panel placed on the top.

Using a load cell on the top of the vibrator to compress with the panel, the force that deforms the panel is measured. As the vibrating equipment tries to maintain a deformation speed, it regulates the acceleration and therefore the load cell fulfills the function of registering the changes in force versus cycle. The equipment records the accelerations and the deformation velocity at the center of the impact. Strain gauges were also used to control the deformation of the panel at of impact for control. In Table 2, the experimental values of the developed experiments are presented. The fatigue phenomenon was reduced on three panels at different force conditions, equal amplitude, and acceleration.

Table 2 Experimental values of the tests carried out

# panel | Frequency range [Hz] | Applied cycles [n] | Average strength [kJ] | Amplitude [G]
A | 5-10 | 5×10⁴ | 50 | 1
B | 5-10 | 5×10⁴ | 40 | 1
C | 5-10 | 5×10⁴ | 30 | 1

To evaluate the energy that the panel returns as mechanical work, the principle that a force F travels a distance x is applied. The work it does for the different frequencies over the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector , for each acceleration at time obtain the Eq. 1 which corresponds to the energy returned by the panel over the shaker.

When carrying out the tests, results were obtained such as those shown in Fig. 4. in a) it is observed that the acceleration imposed by the vibrating equipment on panel A, is rectified to maintain a regular profile curve. The peaks of highs and lows correspond to microdamage produced during deformation due to the laminate opposing bending. The acceleration curve corresponds to a test time of . With this imposed acceleration, it is observed in a) that the panel impacted at cycles presents microcracks around the areas of the viscoelastic in a minimal amount. in b) at cycles of impacts made on average at 50 [KJ], microcracks have increased without detachment of the viscoelastic layer in the matrix.

Fig. 4 Results of the tests carried out on panel A

Fig. 4. Results of the tests carried out on panel A

Data were taken on the force exerted by the vibrator equipment in the impact versus cycles, and this is observed in Fig. 5. For panels A and C, there is a tendency to decrease, being greater that of panel A . On the other hand, the panel B showed a very complex dispersion to evaluate a trend. The results of panel B are not conclusive. During the tests it was found that the force tends to regulate with the acceleration, since the vibrating equipment stabilizes in the acceleration to deform in constant values over time. Force values are sampled because the type of load cell used does not allow a permanent record to be kept.

Fig. 5 Sampling of the applied force in the panels versus impact cycles

Fig. 5. Sampling of the applied force in the panels versus impact cycles

When these force values are transformed to returned energy, they draw the trend curves shown in Fig. 6. Panel A permanently loses its ability to return energy since the measured force that is regulated in the vibrator is still at damage levels. Panel B, product of force dispersion, does not show a trend curve. Panel C draws a trend curve that tends to stabilize, meaning that flexural stiffness has increased due to the level of damage reaching the threshold.

Fig. 6 Energy returned by the panels versus impact cycles

Fig. 6. Energy returned by the panels versus impact cycles

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

By superimposing the viscoelastic layer on the GFRP panels the impact damage can be effectively mitigated. Fig. 7 shows that the increase in flexural stiffness in a panel works in conjunction with the viscoelastic sheet stabilizing the damage. This trend curve, as it stabilizes, is the increase in useful life that we wanted to demonstrate. The generation and propagation of damage is controlled by improving the dissipation of the energy that remains in the form of damage in the GFRP. This approach opens up new perspectives in the design of the planing hull ship, since the superposition of the viscoelastic layers changes the way in which the stresses due to the phenomenon of slamming within the laminate are to be distributed and concentrated.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.35.pdf

Kapfenberg, G., Veer, A., Whipping loads due to aft body slamming. 24th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Japan. pp. 336-337 (2002).

Qin, Z., Batra, R., Local slamming impact of sandwich composite hulls. International Journal of Solids and Structures. Vol 46, pp. 2011-2035. (2009)

Baucoma, J., Zikryb, M., Low-velocity impact damage progression in woven E-glass composite systems Composites Part A. Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol 36, section 5, pp. 658664. (2005)

Belingardini, G., Bador, V., Low velocity impact tests of laminate glass-fiber-epoxy matrix composite material plates International Journal of Impact Engineering, Vol 27, section 2, pp. 213-219. (2002)

Blake, J., Shenoi, R., Strength modelling in stiffened FRP structures with viscoelastic inserts for ocean structures. University of Southampton, UK Ocean Engineering, Vol 29, pp. 849-869. (2002)

Suárez, J.C., The effect of slamming impact on out-of-autoclave cured prepregs of GFRP composite panels for hulls. Science Direct, Procedia Engineering, Vol 167, pp. 252-26. (2016)

Townsend, P. Suárez, J.C.,Reduction of slamming damage in the hull of high-speed crafts manufactured from composite materials using viscoelastic layers, Ocean Engineering, Vol 159, pp. 253-267. (2018)

Dominguez F., Carral. L., The Hybrid Joints between an FRP Panel and a Steel Panel through Tubular Reinforcements: A Methodology for Interlaminar Stress Calculations. Applied Physics., 10(11), 3962; . (2020)

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-3/978-3-0364-1144-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 3, pp 41-46

doi: 10.4028/p-xbmtx2

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2021-07-26

Revised:
2021-10-17

Accepted:
2021-11-08

Online:
2022-09-01

Parametric Analysis of MOSFET Based Absorber for 5 G Massive MIMO Base Station

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

Elliot O. OMORU and Viranjay M. SRIVASTAVA

Department of Electronic Engineering, Howard College, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban-4041, South Africa.

omoruelliot@ieee.org, viranjay@ieee.org

Abstract

The performance of the MOSFET-based absorber as a solution to arching within transmission lines (used for RF signal transportation) has been realized and analyzed at 28 GHz using the reflected signal from the branch of 5 G massive MIMO base station. The reflected signal from the receiver ( ) branch of base stations may lead to interference, thus creating a performance reducing condition (arching) within the transmission lines. For optimum performance in the 5 G regime, the MOSFET has been used to solve the problem of arching within the transmission line under large field intensities of a standing wave resulting from the impedance. The MOSFETbased absorber has been observed for a reflectivity of and a rectification efficiency greater than 17 %

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

Telecommunication started with the introduction of the First Generation ( 1 G ) of technology to Fifth Generation ( 5 G ). For maximum efficiency, the massive MIMO technology has been adopted by telecommunication companies for their base station construct, to complement the deficiencies of the SISO technology used in base stations of previous generations [1,2]. Even though the massive MIMO technology is promising, it has its challenges, and one of such challenges is arching within the transmission line resulting from inconsistency in matching between the and branch [3,4]. Thus, making the line act as an RF storage device instead of transporting device. For this reason, a circulator connected to a MOSFET absorber has been proposed as a solution to the arching within the transmission line used in base station construction.

In this present research work, MOSFET-based absorber has been designed to eliminate arching within transmission lines resulting from the reflected signal in 28 GHz massive MIMO base station. The proposed MOSFET-based model has been analyzed and observed as highly efficient with analysis, based on technical parameters like insertion loss, efficiency, reflection coefficient, reflectivity, permeability, permittivity, and RF propagation (propagating in the absorber). This research paper has been organized as follows. Section II gives an analytical overview of the proposed model. Section III presents the parameter analysis of the rectifier used in the proposed model. Section IV analyses the reflectivity, speed of RF propagating in the absorber, permeability, and permittivity as a performance parameter of the proposed design. Finally, Section V concludes the work and recommends the future aspects.

Analytical Overview of Proposed Model

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

One key advantage of 5 G technology is process optimisation where 5 G is expected to revolutionise areas such as medicine, traffic management, and autonomous vehicles. But with the presence of arching within transmission lines used in base station systems, the overall efficiency of the processes at 5G regime of frequencies will be greatly affected. The proposed model tends to eliminate arching within transmission line thus improving process optimization.

The proposed design for arching effect elimination contains a four-port circulator connected between the , antenna, , and MOSFET device (port-1, port-2, port-3, and port-4) as shown in Fig. 1. In this case, the MOSFET is an N-channel improvement MOSFET that absorbs reflected signals from the branch due to impedance malfunctions that could lead to arching in the transmission line. The modulated RF signal from the branch of the base station flows through port-1 of the circulator into the circulator. This signal is sent to the reception antenna connected to port-2 of the neighbouring base station's circulator via port-2 [5].

If there is an inconsistency in matching between transmitting base station and the branch of the next base station, some signal is reflected in the transmitting base station. The reflected signal from port-3 of the adjacent base station exits the circulator via port-4, which has a rectifier and N channel MOSFET connected. More details have been discussed in the author's previous work [5,6].

A sinusoidal voltage source has been used to supply an equivalent source or branch terminal voltage component of 44.7 V equivalent to 20 W at 43 dBm incident power at 28 GHz simulation frequency. With the help of a voltage divider, the voltage component of reflected RF power from the branch connected to the circulator has been generated and applied to the input terminal of the rectifier used in the proposed model.

The values of resistors and required to produce a voltage drop equivalent to the voltage component of the reflected RF power from the branch have been calculated as and 109 , respectively. These values have been generated using an electronic device simulator at 19 dBm reflection from port-4 of the circulator. From the voltage divider's output, the input values have been calculated as , and at reflection from port-4 of the circulator. Cao et al. [7] have developed a novel rectifying circuit at significant dynamic input power conditions. This rectifying circuit utilizes the circulator in which the microwave is constrained to travel one way. The values of peak voltages and currents pulsate at the output terminal of the rectifier. For the MOSFET device to function effectively, MOSFET input terminal current and voltages must be continuous instead of pulsating.

Fig. 1 Proposed model of MOSFETbased absorber [5].

Fig. 1. Proposed model of MOSFETbased absorber [5].

Fig. 2 Circuit for MOSFET based absorber of reflected RF signal [5].

Fig. 2. Circuit for MOSFET based absorber of reflected RF signal [5].

To generate a pure DC, the rectifier's output must be filtered. From the simulation experiment, these values were deduced by the output plot and its equivalent RMS and peak values of current and voltages have been generated. Now , and ripple factor are , , and 0.33 , respectively. Also, the values of capacitor and inductor needed for the filter design have been calculated as and , respectively. After filtration, the DC voltage and current at the output terminal of the rectifier have been observed to be 1.6 V and 0.566 . The formula for calculating these parameters and values of DC voltages and currents have been generated from the output plots of the rectifier. Since the purpose of this research is to use a MOSFET
to absorb reflected RF power that would have cause arching in transmission lines used in 5 G base station. The relationship and at the source terminal of the MOSFET must be satisfied at 19 reflection from port-4 of the circulator [8].

The MOSFET is said to have performed its function of absorbing reflected radio frequency signal that would have led to arching within the transmission lines if the relationship and at the source terminal is satisfied model has failed. From the values of simulation plots, at source, and at drain have been observed to be , and 1.6 V , respectively. Values from simulation, putting the values of voltages and current into the relationship and at the source terminal, at 19 dBm reflected power from port-4 of the circulator, MOSFET's condition for absorption was satisfied for 19 dBm reflection condition from port-4 of the circulator [9]. Even though the value of reflected power is large, it has been used for testing and experimental purposes, which may not be the case in real-life applications. However, the value of current at the output terminal of the rectifier and the value of current at the MOSFET terminal differs by , this difference is due to MOSFET operating condition.

Performance Parameters for MOSFET Based Rectifier Used in the Proposed Model

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

The rectifier used for the proposed model construct have been considered as part of the absorption process of the proposed MOSFET based absorber. Parameters such as crest factor, power factor, harmonic factor form factor, and rectification efficiency of the rectifier have been used to characterize the performance of the rectifier used for the proposed model construct. These parameters have been used previously to determine the performance of rectifiers. In an attempt to improve crest factor and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), Chen. et. al [10] designed a rectifier circuit. The presented design was observed to have a good input current with power factor greater than 0.99 , THD less than and the crest factor was less than 1.6. Considering the rectifier used for the proposed model the proposed model rectifier circuit is better in terms of these performance parameters.
Crest Factor (CF). The crest factor is the parameter used in determining the consistency in the waveform of an AC voltage source. The reflected RF signal from Rx branch of the receiving base station has been observed from simulation plots as a sinusoidal waveform with a very short wavelength. The crest factor for current drawn by a non-linear load is generally between 1.41 and 2 [11]. However, this value could be as large as 5 in critical cases. The crest factor of the AC source at the input terminal of the rectifier used for the proposed model can be calculated as:

From section II, and have been presented as 2.7 V and 1.8 V . Substituting these into Eq. (1), the crest factor has been calculated as 1.588 . Comparing this computed value with the standard requirement for the crest factor for an AC source connected to a non-linear load, it has been observed that this value falls into the range of expected values of the crest factor for an AC voltage source.

Rectification Efficiency of the Rectifier. It is the rectifier's DC output power to its AC input power ratio . As an advantage, the higher the rectification efficiency, the higher the DC power output for a given AC input. For a half-wave rectifier, the rectification efficiency is . This indicates that the half-wave rectifier can convert a maximum of of AC power into DC power, and the remaining power of is lost in the rectifier circuit. Also, for a full-wave rectifier, the rectification efficiency is . The implication of this is that for an AC input power, will be converted to DC power, while the rectifier circuit will absorb of the AC input power. The rectifier circuit used for the proposed model has been observed to be a full-wave rectifier, to calculate the rectification efficiency by [8]:

To calculate AC input power and DC output power: and have been used. From section II, , and have been observed as , and 1.6 , respectively. The and have been calculated as 3.59 mW and 0.64 mW , respectively. Substituting values of and into the rectification efficiency formula captured in Eq. (2), the rectification efficiency is . This indicates that of power was delivered to the MOSFET while the rectifier circuit has absorbed of the power supplied.

Comparing this value with the standard requirement of rectification efficiency for a fullwave rectifier, it has been observed that the difference in efficiency is significant. The reason for this vast variation is the frequency at which the rectifier was used. When frequencies are too high, it becomes difficult for discrete capacitors and inductors to be practical. A combination of Schottky diode and distributed circuit will be employed for the rectification and filtration process during the physical implementation of the proposed model [5,9].

Power Factor (PF). The rectifier extract power from the peak of the reflected sinusoidal wave voltage coming out of port-4 of the circulator, therefore there should be a minimal phase shift, showing a power factor be . The power factor is given by [8, 11]:

where and are dc and rms value of reflected power, respectively. Therefore, using and substituting values of , and from section II, the and can be calculated as 0.906 mW and 0.9622 mW , respectively. Also, substituting the values of and into the power factor formula captured in Eq. (3), the power factor has been calculated as 0.944 . this value is nearly equal to the expected value for a non-regulated diode-based rectifier.

Total Distortion Factor (THD). A low THD of a power system signifies a system with low peak current and high-power factor. Considering the rectifier system used in the proposed model, there is a change in the current of the reflected power from port- 4 of the circulator. The change in current and output voltage of the reflected RF power can be described in terms of harmonic distortion of the current or voltage [8, 12]:

Substituting the value of the power factor into the distortion factor formula captured in Eq. (4), THD has been calculated as 0.36 . This represents a THD of means that the RMS magnitudes of the harmonics are of the RMS magnitude of the fundamental frequency of the reflected power from port-4 of the circulator. A perfectly linear signal gives a THD factor of .
Form Factor (FF). This parameter is a measure of the RMS value to the average value of an alternating signal. For a sinusoidal wave signal, the form factor is 1.1 [13]. The form factor can be calculated as:

The and have been presented in section II as and , respectively. Substituting these values into Eq. (5), the form factor has been calculated as 1.063 . This value is nearly equal to the standard requirement of 1.1 for a pure sinusoidal waveform. Again, the consistency of the rectifier performance parameter can be checked by relating the form factor with the voltage ripple factor.

The relationship between the voltage ripple ( ) factor and the FF is given by . Substituting the value FF into this, the voltage ripple factor is 0.35 . Comparing this value with the value of voltage ripple factor captured in section II, a difference of 0.02 approximately error has been observed. However, this value is minimal and negligible. Also, at 19 dBm reflection from port1 of the circulator used in the proposed model construct, the reflection coefficient, load impedance, return loss, and VSWR were calculated as , and , respectively [ 5,9 ].

Reflectivity of the MOSFET Based Absorber. Reflectivity can be used to express the performance of an absorber model. In this case, the absorbent material for the proposed model is a combination of the rectifier and the MOSFET. For other absorber models existing in the form of foam absorbers, the thickness of the foam material provides resistance to RF energy. These foam materials allow some of the RF energy to pass through them completely, while others have a metal blocking to contain the radiation [14]. In the case of the proposed model, the channel resistance of the MOSFET and the resistor used in the model have been observed to have the same effect as the thickness of foam absorbers. In other words, the thickness provides resistance in foam absorbers. In contrast, the channel resistance of the MOSFET offers the resistance of the proposed model and the resistor used for the proposed model design. The reflectivity of an absorber can be calculated using:

The reflection coefficient has been presented in [9] as 0.000179 . Substituting this value into Eq. (6), the reflectivity of the proposed absorber model has been calculated as -79.5 dB at 28 GHz . However, a good RF absorber designed at a specified frequency must have a low reflectivity, which is a function of the material used for the absorber design. The proposed MOSFET based absorber design has been observed to have a better reflectivity value compared to the design presented by Rodriguez [15], which has designed an anechoic chamber and used polynomial approximation to compute the RF absorber reflectivity. The designed absorber was observed to have a reflectivity of after experimentation

Conclusion and Future Works

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

The presented model has proven to be a solution to arching within transmission lines used in base stations. The proposed model performance has been analysed using technical parameters like reflectivity, speed of RF propagating in the absorber, distributive, capacitance and permittivity. Also, a complete analysis of the rectifier used for the model has be carried out. The performance of the proposed model has been analyzed with parameters like insertion loss, efficiency, total power absorbed by the MOSFET, total power loss to the rectifier circuit, and reflection coefficient. The values of these parameters have been calculated as 38.3 dB , greater than , and 0.000179 , respectively.

The future work for this research will provide a co-design of the proposed model, cylindrical surrounding patch antenna, and DG MOSFET amplifier at 28 GHz frequency.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.3.41.pdf

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Keywords Index

E

Electrodialysis Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Elongation Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

F

Fluid Slip MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

G

Gfrp The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

H

Heat Transfer MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

I

Impact The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

M

Mhd MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

O

Ohmic Heating MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

P

Porous Media MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

Pretreatment Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

R

Ro Brine Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Rotary Friction Welding Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

S

Ship The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

Slamming The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

T

Tensile Strength Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

V

Viscoelastic The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

Von Karman Transformations MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

W

Welding Material Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

Y

Yield Limit Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

Authors Index

A

Alexander, M. MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

Altway, A. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

G

Gunakala, S. MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

H

Hung, T. Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

J

Job, V. MHD Slip Flow and Heat Transfer with Ohmic Heating between a Rotating Solid Disk and Stationary Permeable Disk

K

Krishna, I. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Ky, L. Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

N

Nga, T. Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

Nurkhamidah, S. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

O

Omoru, E. Parametric Analysis of MOSFET Based Absorber for 5 G Massive MIMO Base Station

R

Rahmawati, Y. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Ranh, T. Research and Test of the Self-Designed and Manufactured Rotary Friction Welding Machine with CT3 Steel Samples

Rodríguez-Ortìz, A. The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

S

Setyono, R. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Srivastava, V. Parametric Analysis of MOSFET Based Absorber for 5 G Massive MIMO Base Station

Susianto, S. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

Suárez, J. The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

T

Taufany, F. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed

V

Valencia, P. The Use of Hybrid Viscoelastic Sheets in the Shipbuilding of GFRP Planing Hull Vessels Externally Adhered to the Laminate

W

Wasi, A. Pretreatment Process on Reverse Osmosis Brine as Electrodialysis Feed