The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 1-6

doi: 10.4028/p-sYB7Eh

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-02-11

Revised:
2023-09-24

Accepted:
2023-09-25

Online:
2023-10-13

Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.1.pdf

JU Yuanyuan , ZHANG Lei

Naval Research Institute of PLA, Beijing, China, 100161

ajuyy2013@163.com, doy2@163.com

Keywords: Molecular Dynamics, Shock Wave, Nanocrystalline Aluminum, Shock Front.

Abstract

The characteristics of shocked nanocrystalline aluminum are investigated by using molecular dynamics method based on the embedded atom method potential function. The result presents the particle velocity profile and the width of shock front in detail. The simulated Hugoniot relations are basically consistent with the experimental data and other molecular dynamics results. The width of shock front decreases with the particle velocity exponentially.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.1.pdf

The classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have been used increasingly to examine the shock compression response of crystalline materials. The massively parallel three-dimensional MD simulations were employed to examine the plasticity induced by shock waves . The MD calculations were used to examine the shock wave propagation along [100], [111], and [110] directions in aluminum single crystals [5]. An et al. presented MD simulations of shock-induced plasticity and spall damage in single crystal Ta [6]. The MD method in conjunction with multi-scale shock technique (MSST) is employed to study the melting characteristics of aluminum single crystal under dynamic conditions. [7]. Structural phase transformation in bulk single crystal Cu in different orientation under shock loading of different intensities has been investigated by A. Neogi et al [8]. The evolution of different types of dislocation mechanisms and their mutual interactions during the process of shock loading were investigated by using the MD simulations for Cu [9]. The multimillion atom non-equilibrium MD simulations were used to investigate the effect of crystallographic orientation over the evolution of deformation pathway of single crystal copper under shock compression [10]. The deformation behavior of a single crystal structure and a coreshell Ni nanoporous (NP) structure under shock loading for a wide range of shock intensities was studied by using MD simulation [11]. The shock compression of a Cu single crystal along the direction specifically focusing on the mechanisms observed in the elastically compressed and the elastic-plastic transition regions is investigated by using MD simulation [12].

However, most of the previous work involves the single crystal material and only a few of studies involve the nanocrystalline (NC) material compressed by shock wave which results in the elastic-plastic deformation in the compressed region. Recently, NC material has been extensively studied by MD simulations for their numerous beneficial properties. The shock wave propagation in NC was studied by using the MD method and the results showed that the width of the shock wave front increases with grain size, d , as , and also decreases with the pressure behind the front [13]. The shock-front structures of NC aluminum were investigated in detail by exploring the relationship between the evolution of stress, particle velocity distributions, and the atomistic structures through MD simulations [14]. MD simulations were employed to investigate the deformation mechanisms and microstructure evolution of NC aluminum under compressive deformation at temperatures close to the melting point [15]. The mechanisms of spalling and melting in NC Pb under shock loading were studied by MD simulations. A wide range of shock intensity was considered with the lowest one just above the threshold of solid spallation, while the highest one higher than the threshold of shock melting [16].

In the current letter, the characteristics of shocked NC aluminum are investigated by using MD method based on the EAM potential function. The shock front structure and the Hugonoit relation are obtained. The results provide useful atomistic knowledge on the characteristics of shocked NC aluminum.

Computation Model and Methodology

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Potential Function. The potential function plays an important role in the MD simulation, and the embedded-atom-method (EAM) potential is employed in the current study [17]. The functional form of the EAM potentials is given by

where is the total energy, the pair potential, and the embedding function. is the electron density contribution from atom to atom . The total electron density at an atom position is calculated via the linear superposition of electron density contributions from neighboring atoms.

Computational Model. The melting behavior of NC aluminum under shock compression is explored using the Large-scale Atomic/Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator (LAMMPS) package [18]. The sample is prepared using the Voronoi construction developed by Chen [19]. The size of the sample is , totally contains about atoms. The grain includes about atoms and the grain boundary includes about atoms. The configuration of grain is FCC and the crystal direction of the grain is random. The grain boundary is also random. Fig. 1 shows the computation model of NC aluminum. The longest direction is defined as x direction which is along the shock wave direction, and other two directions are defined as y and z direction, respectively. The free boundary conditions are imposed along the shock direction. The periodic boundary conditions (PBC) are imposed to minimize surface and edge effects, simulating a pseudoinfinite lateral dimension in the directions transverse to the shock wave. The system was first minimized using the conjugate gradient method, then thermalized to a temperature of 300 K and equilibrated at the temperature using the NVT ensemble, and finally applied various shock waves along the x direction. The time integration step is , and the total computation time is long enough to ensure the shock wave propagates though the system.

Fig. 1 Computation model of NC aluminum

Fig. 1. Computation model of NC aluminum

Results and Discussion

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Shock wave profile. Fig. 2 shows the particle velocity profile in the case of and the particle velocity distribution at a certain time of . It can be found that a steady shock wave propagates in the NC aluminum and the velocity of the shock wave can be calculated by estimating the distance of the shock wave passing though between two different times. At the particle velocity profile is consistent with the particle velocity distribution with an obvious gradient of velocity. In the compressed region the material is melt while in the uncompressed region the material is still in the initial state.

Fig. 2 Velocity profile along the direction of shock wave propagation

Fig. 2. Velocity profile along the direction of shock wave propagation

Shock Hugoniot Relation. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the shock wave velocity and the particle velocity. The velocity profile is in close agreement with the experimental data [20], showing a linear relationship between up and us given by . The present results are also basically consistent with the MD results of obtained by the multiscale shock technique (MSST) for the aluminum single crystal [7].

Fig. 3 Relationship between shock wave velocity and particle velocity

Fig. 3. Relationship between shock wave velocity and particle velocity

The pressure during shock compression for the NC aluminum deviates from the existing experimental values [21,22] and MD results [23] for aluminum single crystal, as shown in Fig. 4. It can be found that in the high compression region the present results are slightly lower than the experimental values. The same situation occurs in the MD simulations for Ni and Al [24, 25].

Fig. 4 Relationship between shock pressure and relative volume

Fig. 4. Relationship between shock pressure and relative volume

In Figure 5 the Hugoniot curve of NC aluminum under different shock pressure is plotted and compared with other results [26,27]. The present work is nearly the same with the experimental data in the relative low compression region, where the experimental data can be detected. The current work is capable of predicting the temperature in the high compression region, as is difficult for the experimental study.

Fig. 5 Dependence of temperature upon shock pressure

Fig. 5. Dependence of temperature upon shock pressure

Shock Wave Front. Figure 6 shows the relationship between the width of shock front and the particle velocity along the direction of shock wave propagation. The width of the shock front is defined as the profile between the particle velocity and the maximum of the particle velocity, as shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the width of shock front decreases with the particle velocity . By fitting the simulation results, it is found that the width of shock front decreases with the particle velocity exponentially, given by , as is consistent with the previous work [13].

Fig. 6 Relationship between width of shock front and particle velocity

Fig. 6. Relationship between width of shock front and particle velocity

Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.1.pdf

The particle velocity profile, Hugoniot relations, and width of shock front of shocked NC aluminum are obtained by using the MD method. The current study shows that our results are basically consistent with the experimental data and other MD results, and the MD method has the ability of predicting the temperature in the high compression region where it is difficult to study the characteristics of shocked NC aluminum experimentally. The width of shock front decreases with the particle velocity exponentially.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.1.pdf

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Table of Contents

Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

Yuan Yuan Ju, Lei Zhang

Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

Gabriel Da Motta Dantas, Danielle Ferreira dos Santos

Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

Zhi Kai Zhou, Wu Yin Jin, Wen Ke Chen, Shou Rui Wang, Xia Zhang

Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Rasheed Abdulwahab, Glory O. Akinwamide, Mukaila Abiola Anifowose, Samson Olalekan Odeyemi

Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

Sheam Bahjat Abdulkareem

Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Ksenia Umerenkova, Vitalii Borysenko, Olexandr Kondratenko, Anton Lievtierov

Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Avadhoot Rajurkar, Kunal Dangra, Aryan Deshpande, Madhav Gosavi, Tejas Phadtare, Gajanan Gambhire

Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Ishant Jain, Sudhakar Reddy

The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

Yao Tsung Lin, Shyh Shin Hwang, Jun An Zhu

Designing a Roundabout to Overcome Traffic Congestion at a Four-Armed Intersection

M. Hemavathy, Ganapathi Malarvizhi

Keywords Index

Authors Index

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 7-18

doi: 10.4028/p-0Vk0vf

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-05-14

Revised:
2023-07-04

Accepted:
2023-07-05

Online:
2023-10-13

Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.7.pdf

Gabriel da Motta Dantas , Danielle Ferreira dos Santos

CCT, Centro Universitário Serra dos Órgãos, Teresópolis, Brazil

Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

gabrielmottadantas@gmail.com, daniellesantos@unifeso.edu.br

Keywords: Mechanical properties, 3D Printing, Biopolymer (PLA), Polymer (PETG).

Abstract

Based 3D printing has become very popular in recent years due to the emergence of projects for low-cost machines, making the technology very accessible. In view of this, some polymers, in general, in thermoplastic filaments, are placed on the market for application in this type of printing technique, making it increasingly necessary to develop research for the characterization of materials to provide information on physical, thermal and mechanical properties. For the development of this work, the polymer poly(ethylene glycol terephthalate) (PETG) was used for a comparative study in relation to poly(lactic acid) (PLA). PETG is obtained by adding modified glycol to the material composition during the polymerization process. It consists of a polymer with a glass transition temperature close to , with mechanical properties similar to those of PET, with the advantages of notable tenacity, flexibility, and high processing capacity, and PLA is a polymer synthesized from corn sugar, potatoes, and sugar cane, through bioconversion and polymerization. PLA presents biocompatibility, biodegradability, and biological absorption, presenting good mechanical properties, processability, thermal stability and low environmental impact. Mechanical tests of compressive strength and flexural strength were carried out. In the compressive strength test, the specimen with filling presented a deformation greater than the specimen with filling. This can be attributed to the mechanical property of the PETG polymer, as it is very ductile, thus facilitating the processability of this artifact. The mechanical flexural strength tests carried out with the PLA polymer with the highest filling percentages ( and ) showed less deformation until failure, characterizing them as more ductile materials. On the other hand, specimens with filling showed greater deformation than specimens with filling. With this, it can be seen that PLA has greater flexibility and tenacity for fillings of low percentages, due to the internal spacing absorbing the impact of loads. The PLA polymer showed better mechanical properties, such as Young's modulus, ductility and more satisfactory resistance when compared to the PETG polymer. As well as the synthesis of PLA, it characterizes the process in a more sustainable way, as it is a biopolymer, in addition to its excellent processability.

Introduction

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The use of 3D printers can be defined as a process used to obtain three-dimensional artifacts based on a digital deposition of successive layers of material until the impression of a final structure [1-3]. The main advantages of 3D printing in relation to traditional manufacturing processes include efficiency: fast, economical production, with low amounts of input, making complex geometries, accessibility with reasonable prices of machines and materials [4,5]. Polymer filaments are deposited gradually, heated and extruded from a calibrated nozzle onto a build platform in the printer. The deposited material is quickly cooled at room temperature, solidifies, and joins the previously extruded structures. At the end of the construction of a complete layer, the platform moves downwards in order to accommodate the next layer of material until the final fabrication of the part [6-10].
The main materials used in this category of machines are thermoplastic filaments of Poly (lactic acid) (PLA), Polyethylene Glycol Terephthalate (PETG), Polycarbonate (PC) and Nylon [11-12].

The PLA polymer is characterized by being one of the most popular materials, available in several colors, being easier to print due to its flexibility and processability [12-13]. Poly(lactic acid) consists of a linear, thermoplastic, semi-crystalline or amorphous aliphatic polyester. It is a polymer synthesized from renewable sources such as corn, potato and sugar cane sugar, through bioconversion and polymerization. PLA has interesting characteristics, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and biological absorption, with good mechanical properties, processability, thermal stability, and low environmental impact [13-16].
PLA has better thermomechanical characteristics compared to ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene), with greater mechanical strength, low coefficient of thermal expansion, which improves the printing process, reducing effects such as warping during the manufacturing process [17,18]. Regarding the tensile strength of PLA, the values of experimental tests vary from 50 to 70 MPa , and the Young's modulus varies between 3.0 and 4.0 GPa , depending on the composition of the material [19,20]. This polymer is widely used in industries, especially in sectors such as the manufacture of biodegradable medical implants and food packaging [21,22]. However, in relation to mechanical tests, the artifact is limited in elongation to failure, with low impact strength [23-26].
Another polymer widely used for this application is PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol) which is obtained by adding modified glycol to the composition of the material during the polymerization process. It consists of a polymer with a glass transition temperature close to , with mechanical properties similar to those of PET, with the advantages of notable tenacity, flexibility, and high processing capacity [27,28]. It is in high demand when there is a need to obtain flexible and durable parts. PETG brings together the best characteristics of ABS, resistance and ductility, with the ease of printing of PLA. Several authors sought to evaluate the chemical, thermal and mechanical properties of PETG, printed with elements manufactured by injection molding [2931].
The study developed in this work sought to carry out compressive and flexural strength tests, evaluating the impact of the filling percentage on the mechanical properties of the printed artifacts. The relevance was to emphasize a practical methodology, obtaining materials with excellent finishing with superior mechanical resistance to the materials that are obtained by traditional methods of processing plastics. The results showed that parts with partial fillings, such as , achieve very satisfactory results, quickly, effectively and with standardization of the process due to digital control.

Experimental Activity

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Materials. Two 1.75 mm diameter polymeric filaments were used for 3D printing. The PLA polymer supplied by the company 3D INK (orange color) and PETG (black color) supplied by the company RepRap. PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol) polymer. Molecular formula: ; Viscosity: ).

PLA (Poly(lactic Acid)) polymer. Molecular formula: ; Viscosity: ).

The polymeric parts were obtained by the 3D printing process by extrusion, pushed through a heated nozzle, melting it in the process, presenting a mesostructure formed by density of voids and the existence of filament-to-filament bonds deposited within and between the layers. The mesostructure is determined by the deposition trajectories of the filaments, and by the process parameters. The presence of voids inside the pieces is due to the oblong shape of the filaments that constitute them. The degree of filling, as well as the extent of the bond between filaments are factors that influence the mechanical resistance developed by the parts [32,33].

Obtaining PETG specimens. PETG polymer specimens were obtained using the Ultimaker S3 3D printer in cylindrical formats (diameter 25 mm and height 50 mm ) and in parallelepiped format (20 ). The printing was carried out with the compositions in(%w) filled (mass), and filled. (Figure 1).

Fig. 1: PETG polymer specimens obtained via 3D printing, in the proportions (%w): (A) , (B) and (C) .

Fig. 1. PETG polymer specimens obtained via 3D printing, in the proportions (%w): (A) , (B) and (C) .

Table 1 presents the average values referring to the measurements of the specimens printed in quadruplicate, in cylindrical and parallelepiped formats using the PETG polymer in the 3D printer.

Table 1: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

Printed average sizing of specimens (mm) | % of specimen filling (%w)
| 100 % | 50 % | 30 %
cylindrical geometry (d x h) | 24.89 x 49.81 | 24.80 x 50.00 | 25.11 x 49.83
parallelepiped geometry | 20.14 x 30.26 x 100.04 | 21.91 x 30.27 x 100.13 | 20.44 x 30.24 x 100.11

Obtaining PLA specimens. PLA polymer specimens were obtained using the Ultimaker S3 3D printer in cylindrical formats (diameter 25 mm and height 50 mm ) and in parallelepiped format . The printing was carried out with the compositions in (%w) filled (mass), and filled. (Figure 2).

Fig. 2: PLA polymer specimens obtained via 3D printing, in the proportions (%w): (A) , (B) and (C) 30%.

Fig. 2. PLA polymer specimens obtained via 3D printing, in the proportions (%w): (A) , (B) and (C) 30%.

Table 2 presents the average values referring to the measurements of the specimens printed in quadruplicate, in cylindrical and parallelepiped formats using the PLA polymer in the 3D printer.

Table 2: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

Printed average sizing of specimens (mm) | % of specimen filling (%w)
| 100 % | 50 % | 30 %
cylindrical geometry (d × h) | 25.07 × 49.87 | 24.87 × 49.92 | 24.94 × 49.94
parallelepiped geometry | 20.08 × 29.91 × 99.92 | 19.97 × 29.92 × 99.95 | 20.43 × 30.11 × 99.85

The nozzle temperature ranged from to , and the results showed that the PETG wire must be printed at a temperature greater than . The nozzle temperature ranged from to , and the results showed that the PETG wire must be printed at a temperature higher than 230 C. A cooling rate of .

Characterization of materials. After printing the test specimens, the compression test is based on the application of a progressive and constant uniaxial load on the test specimens, longitudinally deforming, verifying the material's compressive strength limit. The tests are described and recommended by the ASTM E2954 standard [34]. The test load must be applied continuously at a constant speed of minute . Tests were performed on the INTERMETRIC universal testing machine, in quadruplicate.

Fig. 3: Axial compressive strength test.

Fig. 3. Axial compressive strength test.

After printing the specimens, the flexural strength test was carried out with the application of an axial load with the specimen resting on its own (three point), as shown in Figure 4, as described in the ASTM D790 standard [35]. The test load was continuously applied at a constant speed of 8.0 minute. Tests were performed on the INTERMETRIC universal testing machine, in quadruplicate.

Fig. 4: Bending strength mechanical test. (A) Side view; (B) Front view.

Fig. 4. Bending strength mechanical test. (A) Side view; (B) Front view.

The applied load distributes the force at a point on the bar, which is instantly measured by the load cell of the equipment, as well as the deflection (deflection) of the part. The test results can show the mechanical properties of the materials, such as resistance to bending, modulus of elasticity and deformation [36].
For the compressive strength tests, cylindrical specimens were used, and for the bending resistance tests, parallelepiped geometry specimens were used.

Results and Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.7.pdf

Compressive strength test for PETG polymer. The axial compressive strength test was performed based on ASTM E2954 using the INTERMETRIC universal test equipment. Figure 5 illustrates the arrangement of the specimen in the equipment for performing the mechanical test. The first polymer tested in the compressive strength test was PETG. Assays were performed in quadruplicate. PETG polymer has remarkable toughness, flexibility, and high processability. Figure 5 illustrates the specimens prepared with the PETG polymer, after the compressive strength tests. The specimens filled with (%w) showed greater preservation in the structure, showing greater mechanical resistance for this percentage of polymer. Figure 5.B illustrates the specimens filled with , by mass, and it is possible to observe greater preservation of the structure after the compressive strength test.

Fig. 5: Specimens after compressive strength tests for and filling.

Fig. 5. Specimens after compressive strength tests for and filling.

PETG polymer has remarkable strength, flexibility and high processability [37]. Table 3 shows the compressive strength results. The specimen with filling reached the highest Young's modulus, this can be attributed to the printed internal geometry of the cylinders, in the form of lattices, resulting in a good reinforcement effect in the compressive strength. Filled with by mass, it presented lower mechanical resistance due to the greater presence of empty spaces inside the cylinders. This can be attributed to the formation of a layer of more brittle filaments, in a lower percentage, making the material more brittle.

Table 3: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

% of specimen filling (%w) | Young's Modulus (MPa) | Maximum Stress (MPa) | Maximum Strain (mm)
30 % | 299 | 15.26 | 2.98
50 % | 417 | 21.89 | 4.84
100 % | 389 | 31.37 | 8.54

The specimen with filling presented a deformation greater than the specimen with filling. This can be attributed to the mechanical property of the PETG polymer, as it is very ductile, thus facilitating the processability of this material. It is possible to observe in Figure 5.C the bulging in the test specimens for this filler content ( ), but with there was greater mechanical resistance in relation to the reinforcement test, largely due to the internal structure that acted with the effect of reinforcement, absorbing better load.

Flexural strength test for PETG polymer. For the three-point flexural strength test, the specimens were submitted to the methodology recommended in the ASTM D790 standard. The test load was continuously applied at a constant speed of minute . Figure 6 illustrates the specimens after the three-point bending test. Parts with filling had greater deformation at rupture, characterizing a more ductile material. As the percentage of filament fillings in the printing of the parts increased ( and ), less deformation was observed on the rupture surface (Figures 6.A and 6.C), characterizing them as less tenacious materials.

Fig. 6: Specimens after bending resistance tests for and filling.

Fig. 6. Specimens after bending resistance tests for and filling.

The bending moment is nothing more than the sum of the moments relative to the section, contained in the axis of a part, generated by loads applied transversely to the longitudinal axis. That is, it is an effort that tends to bend a beam. For the calculation of the maximum bending moment, use equation 1 .

Table 4 presents the results of mechanical bending tests performed on artifacts prepared via 3D printing. The specimens with the highest filling content ( and ) showed little deformation until failure, characterizing themselves as more ductile materials.

Table 4: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

% of specimen filling (%w) | Breaking Load (Kgf) | Maximum Strain (mm) | [Mf]_máx (KN.cm)
30% | 121.93 | 7.82 | 3.10
50% | 197.98 | 6.31 | 5.34
100% | 348.63 | 3.13 | 7.95

On the other hand, the specimens with less filling showed greater deformation, characteristic of tough material. This can be attributed to the distribution of the bending load between the spacings on the inside, promoting greater resilience for this lower filler content.

Compressive strength test for PLA polymer. Axial compressive strength testing was performed based on ASTM E2954 using INTERMETRIC Universal Test Equipment. Figure 7 illustrates the arrangement of the PLA polymer specimen in the equipment for performing the mechanical test. PLA polymer has high processability in 3D printer equipment, as well as excellent dimensional stability in printed parts. Figure 7 illustrates the specimens prepared with the PLA polymer, after the compressive strength tests.

Fig. 7: Specimens after compressive strength tests for and filling.

Fig. 7. Specimens after compressive strength tests for and filling.

Table 5 presents the results of the mechanical compressive strength tests. The specimens filled with (%p) showed greater preservation in the structure, with a higher Young's modulus ( 510 MPa ) evidencing the impression reinforcement effect of the internal filaments, similar to trusses. Specimens with filling had a greater drop in Young's modulus, showing greater deformation in the structure ( greater than filling), behaving as a very tenacious material. That is, presenting high flexibility during the compressive strength test.

Table 5: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

% of specimen filling (%w) | Young's Modulus (MPa) | Maximum Stress (MPa) | Maximum Strain (mm)
30 % | 330 | 15.48 | 2.34
50 % | 510 | 24.86 | 2.43
100 % | 216 | 36.67 | 8.43

Flexural strength test for PLA polymer. For the three-point flexural strength test, the specimens were submitted to the methodology recommended in the ASTM D790 standard. The load was continuously applied at a constant rate of minute. Figure 8 illustrates the specimens after the three-point bending test. Parts with filling had greater deformation at rupture, characterizing a more resilient material. As the percentage of filling of filaments in the printing of the parts increased ( and ), the percentage of deformation in the rupture surface decreased, with more rigid characteristics the parts with greater filling.

Fig. 8: Specimens after bending resistance tests for and filling.

Fig. 8. Specimens after bending resistance tests for and filling.

Table 6 presents the results of the mechanical flexural strength tests performed on artifacts prepared via 3D printing. The specimens with higher filler content ( and ) showed less deformation until failure, being characterized as more ductile materials. Specimens with infill showed greater deformation than specimens with infill. That is, PLA with lower fillings have greater flexibility and toughness [38].

Table 6: Average sizing of specimens obtained by 3D printing.

% of specimen filling (%w) | Breaking Load (Kgf) | Maximum Strain (mm) | [Mf] máx (KN.cm)
30 % | 120.74 | 5.16 | 2.96
50 % | 137.95 | 2.54 | 3.38
100 % | 262 | 1.64 | 6.42

Similar to the behavior of the specimens printed with PETG polymer, the PLA specimens with a lower filling percentage showed greater deformation, characteristic of a tough material. This can be attributed to the distribution of the bending load between the spacings on the inside (Mf), promoting greater resilience due to this lower load content.

Conclusions

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PETG polymer has remarkable strength, flexibility and high processability. The results of the compressive strength showed that the specimens with filling reached a higher Young's modulus, this can be attributed to the printed internal geometry of the cylinders, in the form of lattices, resulting in a good reinforcement effect in the compressive strength. Regarding the mechanical bending tests, the specimens with the highest filler content ( and ) showed little deformation until failure, characterizing themselves as more ductile materials.

The mechanical compressive strength tests for the PLA polymer showed that the specimens filled with showed greater preservation in the structure, with a higher Young's modulus ( 510 MPa ) showing the effect of reinforcing the impression of the internal filaments, similar to trusses. Specimens with filling had a greater drop in Young's modulus, showing greater deformation in the structure ( greater than filling), behaving as a very tenacious material. For the mechanical flexural strength tests, the specimens with the highest load content ( and )
showed less deformation until failure, characterizing themselves as more ductile materials. Specimens with infill showed greater deformation than specimens with infill. That is, PLA with less filling showed greater flexibility and toughness.

The PLA polymer showed better mechanical properties, such as Young's modulus, ductility and more satisfactory resistance when compared to the PETG polymer. Another property of interest in the use of this polymer is the synthesis route, as it characterizes a more sustainable process, since it is a matter of obtaining a biopolymer, in addition to its excellent processability.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 19-28

doi: 10.4028/p-v8QtEo

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-05-23

Revised:
2023-07-08

Accepted:
2023-07-11

Online:
2023-10-13

Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.19.pdf

Zhikai Zhou , Wuyin Jin , Wenke Chen , Shourui Wang , and Xia Zhang

China Railway Construction Heavy Industry Corporation Limited, Changsha 410100, China

School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou 730050, China

College of Electrical Engineering, Longdong University, Qingyang 745000, China

@qq.com, wuyinjin@hotmail.com, Chenwk0722@outlook.com, shouruiwang@hotmail.com, zhx8613@126.com

Keywords: Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling, Impact Force, Lubrication, Surface Roughness

Abstract

The conventional milling process is difficult due to the high strength and hardness of Cr 12 MoV , which can cause the rapid tool wear, premature failure, and poor milling quality of work platform. The ultrasonic vibration machining technology has been founded to be effective in the milling process of hard-to-cut materials like die tool steel and nickel alloys. The ultrasonic vibration assisted milling (UVM) technology is carried out the axial milling of Cr 12 MoV in this paper, and the average impact force is influenced by the vibration amplitude , the vibration frequency , and equivalent mass of the vibrating part . The mean value of cutting force , and decreases by , and , respectively. With the increase of vibration amplitudes, the value of surface roughness firstly decrease and then increase, and it is obviously lower than conventional milling. The experimental results demonstrated that the UVM technology is a feasible method for the low cutting force and high quality process of cutting Cr 12 MoV .

Introduction

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Cr 12 MoV is one typical and advanced hard-to-cut material used in modern aerospace industry [1-3] because of its inherent properties, such as high hardness, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and high flexural strength. However, it is known that high strength leads to large cutting force, rapid tool wear, premature failure, and poor surface quality in cutting process [4,5]. The low force, high quality, and stable cutting on Cr 12 MoV have always been a challenge with the conventional cutting process.

In order to improve the machining quality of hard-to-cut steel, a lot of methods were contributed by many scholars. An analytical method combining finite element simulation with geometric modeling was proposed for predicting cutting forces in shear and plowing, and the validity of the model was verified by micro-milling tests with TiAiN-coated tools on P-20 steel work platform [6]. The effect of different CBN inserts on cutting forces and surface roughness was investigated for turning of AISI H13 die tool steel [7]. An experimental study was conducted on the milling process of hardened die tool steel using coated carbide cutters, and the results showed that main forms of tool failure were chipping and edge spalling [8]. An experimental method was investigated to study the effect of milling parameters on surface roughness during high speed milling of die tool steel [9]. To study the influence of process parameters on the vibration of the work platform during machining, different lengths of high speed steel twist drills were selected for drilling tests on cold work die tool steel, and the influence of tool, work platform material, and machining parameters on the torque of the drilling force was analyzed [10].

The ultrasonic processing technology has attracted the attention of scholars and achieved a lot of results [11]. The ultrasonic vibration assisted cutting is one of promising ultrasonic technique, which showed that have great advantages over the conventional cutting, like lower cutting forces, higher machining stability, less tool wear, and a better quality [12,13]. It has been widely used due to

Fig. 1: Schematic of axial ultrasonic vibration milling coordinate system

Fig. 1. Schematic of axial ultrasonic vibration milling coordinate system

increase productivity and stability in the machining of the hard-to-cut materials [14,15]. The ultrasonic elliptical vibration cutting (UEVC) can significantly improve the productivity, and it was reported to utilize fully the cutter [16]. The geometrical and mechanical behaviors of machined holes were investigated by helical milling and ultrasonic vibration helical milling Ti6Al4V alloy [17]. Literature [18] carried out a comprehensive experiment on surface integrity in rotary ultrasonic elliptical end milling of Ti6Al4V with various vibration amplitudes and cutting speeds, and the results showed that surface roughness was be risen with increase of cutting speed and vibration amplitude. The ultrasonic vibration cutting technology was applied to the milling process of AISI304 steel [19], and the test results showed that the milling force and the surface roughness were reduced. The effects of ultrasonic vibration milling of 718 nickel alloy was investigated on material surface integrity, tool wear, milling forces, and fatigue resistance [20]. The effects of ultrasonic vibration milling on surface roughness, micro-groove morphology, milling force and chip formation was studied on low speed machining of R-shaped micro-groove [21]. Based on alloy steel AISI4405, and the results showed that the surface roughness, milling force, and micro-groove morphology were improved. Zhang et al. [22] proposed a high speed elliptical ultrasonic vibration milling and tested with titanium alloy webs. Tao et al. [23] mainly studied ultrasonic vibration milling in the feed direction, and a large number of studies has been carried out in the milling force, machining accuracy, surface morphology, and system stability through theoretical analysis and experiments on different materials. Furthermore, A force predictive model and surface roughness predictive model were proposed, and the accuracy of the models was verified based on UVM experiments [24,25].

Although UVM technology has been widely used to the die tool steel, the studies of milling characteristics of Cr 12 MoV are still poor. In order to improve the milling processing of Cr 12 MoV , the UVM technology is employed to carry out axial milling in this paper, and the cutting force and surface roughness are analyzed. The principal analysis of UVM process is described in Section 1. The experimental setup is given in Section 2. The results and discussion are depicted in Section 3. The conclusions are drawn in Section 4.

Principe Analysis of Axial UVM Process

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The schematic of axial UVM is illustrated in Figure 1. The ultrasonic vibration is applied in the direction of cutting tool axis (i.e., axis), a rectangle coordinate system is established on the work platform, and a cylindrical coordinate system is established on the cutting tool, the axis and axis overlap, the two frames share one origin.

Table 1: Definition of parameters

Symbol | Means | Unit
R | Radium of cutting tooth | mm
ω | Angular velocity | rad/s
t | Time | s
Vc | Feed velocity | m/s
f | Frequency of ultrasonic vibration | Hz
A | Vibration amplitude | μm
Z | Number of teeth on the cutting tool |
φ₀ | Initial phase angle | rad
i | Number of cutter edge |

In Figure 1, is the rotary speed ( ), the motion trajectory equation in axial ultrasonic vibration milling can be defined as [26]:

The meanings of the parameters in Eq. 1 are explained in Table 1.
In the traditional milling process, the energy that drives the work platform to move according to the specified geometry and make the tool tip vibrate to produce chips comes from the spindle motor. However, the energy which makes the cutter vibrate to produce chips originates from the ultrasonic generating equipment when using in UVM technology, the energy supplied by the spindle motor only drives the work platform to move in a specific geometric relationship, which improves the chip breaking ability.

It can be seen that the ultrasonic vibration technology brings additional energy, which makes the energy to increase in the cutting process. Whereas, the high frequency vibration also brings great impact force [27]. The velocity and acceleration of the tool with high frequency vibration could be get as:

In axial UVM, assuming . According to Newton's second law of motion, the acceleration of an object is proportional to the force exerted on it, which can cause great influence by and . Letting is the equivalent mass of the vibrating part, according to the momentum theorem, the average impact force on the work platform in is approximately as:

where is the average impact force, and it can be seen that the impact force is related to the quality of vibration parts, the ultrasonic vibration amplitude, and frequency.

Fig. 2: Illustration of the ultrasonic vibration milling process

Fig. 2. Illustration of the ultrasonic vibration milling process

Based on Eq. 3, it also can be seen that simply increasing ultrasonic vibration parameters will not achieve better cutting results. For axial ultrasonic milling of thin-wall parts, ultrasonic vibration parameters should be controlled to prevent the great impact force, resulting in the reduction of machining accuracy and surface quality of the work platform.

The cooling and lubricating effects in the process of axial UVM are important on hard-to-cut materials surface quality, tool life, and cutting temperature. The milling process consists of two parts, the vacant cutting and actual cutting. In Figure 2, letting is actual cutting time, is vacant cutting time, and is ultrasonic vibration period of the cutter tooth, respectively. The conductivity can be defined as:

According to Eq. 4, the actual cutting state of the tool can be known by the conductivity . The actual cutting time is shorter and the vacant cutting time is longer if the conductivity is smaller, and so the lower average cutting force and cutting temperature will be achieved in the ultrasonic vibration cutting process. The cutting state between tool cutting edge and work platform cutting surface is not separated when , it will be finished if [28]. The periodically contact and separation of cutting tool and conductivity of the ultrasonic vibration milling make the cutting zone interface to open periodically. Therefore, cooling medium effectively enter into the cutting zone interface, and it is significant to improve the cooling and lubrication conditions in the cutting process. Compared with the conventional milling, the cooling lubrication efficiency is greatly increases using UVM technology.

Experimental Setup

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In the experimental setup, a typical die tool steel Cr 12 MoV is chosen, and its size is . The physical properties of Cr 12 MoV are listed in Table 2.

The experimental platforms are set up as Figure 3, it mainly consisted of a CNC machine with cooling system, an ultrasonic power supply, a force measuring system (i.e.,Kistler 9139AA dynamometer and industrial computer), and the CNC machine provided the rotation to the UVM spindle. The cutting tool is rotated and vibrated in direction simultaneously with high frequency and small amplitude. A piezoelectric dynamometer of Kislter 9139AA is employed to measure the cutting force. The signals generated by the dynamometer are converted into voltage signals, transmitted to the Data acquisition system of Kistler 9139AA, then the obtained digital signals are recorded by the virtue of the Kistler Dynoware software. A 3D digital measuring and scanning microscope Smartzoom are used to observe the wear condition, the shapes, and sizes of the cutting chip.

Table 2: Physical properties of Cr 12 MoV

Density (kg/m³) | Elastic modulus (GPa) | Poisson's ratio | Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) | Thermal expansion coefficient (10⁻⁶/K)
7700 | 216 | 0.3 | 29 | 10.4

Fig. 3: Diagram and picture of experimental setup

Fig. 3. Diagram and picture of experimental setup

Fig. 4: Change trend of cutting force; (a) Partial drawing of cutting force of UVM when , (b) Partial drawing of cutting force of UVM when , (c) Influence trend of amplitude on milling force

Fig. 4. Change trend of cutting force; (a) Partial drawing of cutting force of UVM when , (b) Partial drawing of cutting force of UVM when , (c) Influence trend of amplitude on milling force

Results and Discussion

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The single factor experiments of cutting force and surface roughness are conducted in laboratory, and the experimental parameters are chosen as the tool rotary speed , cutting depth mm , cutting width , and , respectively. The comparison of axial milling cutting force are shown in Figure 4 (a) and (b). As can be seen from the figure, the cutting force of ultrasonic vibration milling is reduced for varying degrees, and the range of cutting force is also reduced compared with conventional milling. And the fluctuating density of the cutting force curve is significantly greater than that in conventional milling, which could be explained by the periodic separate-contact type mechanism. Absolute values of cutting force in milling process increase first from zero to the maximum and then decrease from the maximum to zero with the variation of cutting conditions. Thus, the average values of axial cutting force are generally used to evaluate the size of cutting force. The average cutting force of and direction in conventional milling ( ) and UVM ( respectively) of Cr 12 MoV shown in the Figure 4 (c), and the values of and , especially the in UVM is significantly lower. The mean value of , and are decreased by , and , respectively. The average value of and are very closed to that of conventional milling, and as the amplitude increases, the cutting force curve of decreases first and then increases when . The reason for this phenomenon is that as the ultrasonic vibration amplitude increases, the cutting impact force also increases according to the Eq. 3, which weakens the advantage of ultrasonic vibration milling technology in reducing the axial cutting force.

Fig. 5: Illustration of the ultrasonic vibration milling process

Fig. 5. Illustration of the ultrasonic vibration milling process

The above figures verified that the UVM technology can greatly reduce the cutting force in the cutting process, which will contribute to lower cutting tool wear and longer tool life. And the main reasons for the remarkable effects of UVM are the periodical and dynamic contact and separation mechanism and the effective lubricating and cooling in the cutting process. At the same time, it is important to control the ultrasonic vibration parameters to avoid the generation of excessive ultrasonic impact force.
Surface quality is a crucial indicator used to measure and evaluate the quality of the components, which also has a great impact on the service life and reliability of the parts. The surface roughness is measured by the SJ-210 handheld roughness meter. A single variable method was studied the influence of different amplitudes on the surface roughness of the processed surface.
Figure 5 shows the values of the mean surface roughness. The mean value of the surface roughness in the three different points in the finished surface. It can be found that with the increase of the amplitude , the mean values of surface roughness after UVM ( , respectively) were obviously lower than conventional milling ( ). Hence, the surface quality of the finished surface is greatly improved compared with conventional milling. Due to the contact-separation mechanism, there are thousands of contact and separation between the cutter and the work platform in the direction of ultrasonic vibration. The cutter with sinusoidal oscillation produces intensive impact on the machined surface, which causes stamping effect and is helpful to obtain good surface processing quality. The value of surface roughness decreases firstly, and reaches the minimum value when , and then increases along with respectively, which is due to the impacting caused by excessive amplitude. The impacting results in micro-dimples on machined surface that deteriorated the surface roughness and integrity. But that are still significantly lower than conventional milling. The results revealed that the UVM of Cr 12 Mo could effectively reduce the surface topography height of finished surface so as to improve the surface quality compared with that in conventional milling [29].

Conclusion

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The UVM technology used to the axial milling of Cr 12 MoV was employed and an experiment was performed in this paper. Based on the experiment analysis and result, the main conclusion can be drawn as follow:

After theoretical derivation, the impact force caused by ultrasonic vibration was related to the quality of vibrating parts , the frequency and amplitude of ultrasonic vibration. Moreover, the impact force had influence on the axial cutting force.

In comparison to the conventional milling of Cr 12 MoV , the UVM technology can effectively reduce the cutting force and obtain the better surface quality, which works together to improve the machining quality of Cr 12 MoV .

The technical method about UVM of Cr 12 MoV was credible and effective, and the machining effects were excellent, which provides a basis for milling hard die tool steel.

Acknowledgements

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.19.pdf

Authors acknowledge the financial support from the Key Research and Development Program of Gansu Province, China (Grant No.21YF5GA080), Gansu science and technology planning project, China (Grant No. 21JR11RM050)

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Hampa P. S., Razfar M. R., Malaki M., et al. The role of dry aero-acoustical lubrication and material softening in ultrasonically assisted milling of difficult-to-cut AISI 304 steels. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 2014; 68: 43-49.

Suarez A., Veiga F., Lacalle L., et al. Effects of ultrasonics-assisted face milling on surface integrity and fatigue life of Ni-Alloy 718. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance 2016; 25: 5076-5086.

Kurniawan R., Kumaran S. T., Ali S., et al. Experimental and analytical study of ultrasonic elliptical vibration cutting on AISI 1045 for sustainable machining of round-shaped microgroove pattern. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 2018; 98: 2031-2055.

Zhang X., Sui H., Zhang D., et al. Feasibility study of high-speed ultrasonic vibration cutting titanium alloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 2017; 247: 111-120.

Tao G., Chao M., Shen X., et al. Experimental and modeling study on cutting forces of feed direction ultrasonic vibration-assisted milling. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 2017; 90: 709-715.

Feng Y.,Hsu F.,Lu Y., et al. Force prediction in ultrasonic vibration-assisted milling. Machining Science and Technology 2020: 1-24.

Feng Y.,Hsu F.,Lu Y., et al. Surface roughness prediction in ultrasonic vibration-assisted milling. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design Systems and Manufacturing 2020; 14(4):1-14.

Dong Z., Wei Q., Liu J., et al. Experimental research on cutting characteristics of axial ultrasonic vibration micro milling. Manufacturing Technology & Machine Tool 2020: 34-37.

Wang X., Zhu X., Gao J., et al. Milling research and tool selection design of SiC 14 Cu 4 Mg 0.5 Si based on aluminium matrix 2A14. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Mater Sci Ed 2016; 31: 1377-1380.

Li Z., Guo H., Li L., et al. Study on surface quality and tool life in ultrasonic vibration countersinking of titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V). The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 2019; 103: 1119-1137.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 29-37

doi: 10.4028/p-4QcUJU

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-07-01

Revised:
2023-09-01

Accepted:
2023-09-01

Online:
2023-10-13

Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.29.pdf

Rasheed ABDULWAHAB , Glory O. AKINWAMIDE , Mukaila A. ANIFOWOSE and Samson O. ODEYEMI

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria.

Department of Civil Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic Ado, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti, Nigeria.

Department of Civil Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic Offa, Offa, Kwara, Nigeria.

abdulwahab.rasheed@kwasu.edu.ng, akinwamideoluwayinka@gmail.com, mukaila.anifowose@fedpoffaonline.edu.ng, samson.odeyemi@kwasu.edu.ng,

Keywords: Absorption, Cement, Compressive Strength, Engineering Properties, Lateritic Brick

Abstract

The construction industry is really concerned with producing better and durable building materials. Hence, the high cost of conventional building materials have resulted into use of locally available materials. This study assess the effect of varying cement content on engineering properties of fired lateritic bricks. The lateritic soil samples were stabilized with cement at , 6, 6.5, 7 and 7.5%, cast in moulds and later fired for 8 hours at a . Index properties (natural moisture content, specific gravity, particle size distribution and atterberg limit tests) were determined on the natural lateritic soil. While compressive strength, water absorption, abrasion and impact value test were determined on the cement fired bricks. The lateritic soil in its natural form were classified as A-6 and clay of high compressibility in accordance to ASTM D-3282. The results of the index properties are within acceptable limits for lateritic soil. The effect of varying cement content on the mechanical properties showed that the compressive strength of the bricks increases from at control (un-stabilized brick) to at soil stabilization with cement. However, significant reductions in value was witnessed in the water absorption, abrasion and impact value results between the un-stabilized brick (control) and cement fired bricks. The study concluded that fired bricks stabilized with cement was found to be the best and most suitable for load and non-load bearing walls.

Introduction

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The present construction industry is really concerned with discovering and producing strong and durable building materials to accommodate the increasing need for shelter, prevent devastating forces of construction and safe guard against fast polluting environment [1]. The problems influencing construction industry as highlighted by Hashim [2] and Olaoye [3] are numerous. These include scarcity and cost of construction materials, high demand for housing, lack of promotion of use of locally available materials and so on.

Solid or hollow sandcrete blocks are mostly used as walling unit (either as load bearing or nonloading bearing wall) in the construction of houses [4-7]. However, there is need to focus on some other materials that could serve the same purpose. One of these endowments with tremendous potential for economic utilization is lateritic brick. A clay brick is a walling material produced by a brick dough, which consists of clayey soil and water. It is formed primitively, naturally dried, and fired in the kilns [8]. Clay brick masonry is an ancient and durable construction material used by man [9]. Fired bricks are one of the long lasting and good building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since 5000 BC . Air-dried bricks, also known as mud bricks has straws as additional ingredient. Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds with mortar holding them together to form a whole. Clay bricks can be sun dried (Adobe) or burn in a controlled or uncontrolled temperature. Burnt clay bricks are porous and the degree of porosity depends on the temperature the bricks are subjected to during production. Odeyemi et al., [10] asserted that firing ultimately produces consolidated but porous brick mass and impaired physical appearance with high production cost.

Many different techniques have been developed in using earth as a construction material. It was observed that these techniques vary according to the local climate and environment as well as local traditions and customs [11].

The scarcity and high cost of conventional building materials have resulted into use of locally available materials as alternative and as well as construction techniques to enhance access to housing for all. The use of Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) as a walling material is a sustainable construction technique as it is affordable, durable and accessible. However, one of the major constraints has been the availability of suitable clay for making high strength bricks in Nigeria and the available ones are of varying grades and characteristics [12]. Das [13] found out that the specific gravity of clay materials ranges between 2.0 to 3.2. According to National Building Code [14], the maximum value for moisture absorption of lateritic bricks is . Generally, soil could be classified as granular or silt-clay material on the basis of the percentage of fines passing through sieve number 200 ( 75 microns) for a value less than granular. Furthermore, soils are classified into groups A1 to A-7, with A-1 to A-3 being granular and A-4 to A-7 as silt-clay based on the value of Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI). Soil with maximum LL value of and minimum PI of is classified as A-6 in accordance to ASTM D-3282 [15].

The necessity for locally made building resources has been discussed and analysed in several countries across the globe. Sourcing for suitable raw materials from the huge natural gifts of nature in Nigeria for construction works and to combat the hike in cost of building materials in construction world today, giving rise to high cost of erecting a building for an average man who deserves a shelter and to help reduce failure in buildings is the main reason for this research. The objectives are characterization/classification of the lateritic soil and in addition, determination of the effects of varying percentage of cement on the properties of fired bricks.

Materials and Methods

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Sample collection

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Dry laterite soil was taken from a borrow pit on coordinates 8021.281 N and 7054.921 E along Central Bank of Nigeria, new Iyin Road, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. The lump of the soil was crushed into loose materials using pestle in order to have fine particles. Thereafter, it was sieved until particle size of soil that passed through 1.18 mm were achieved. Drinking water in compliance to NIS-554 [16] was used for block production.

Methods

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Natural Moisture Content (NMC), specific gravity, particle size distribution analysis and atterberg limit tests were carried out on the soil in order to determine the index properties of the sample in its natural state.

The NMC of the soil were determined in accordance to BS EN ISO 17892-12 [17]. Three weighing containers were cleaned and weighed to the nearest 0.01 g as before use. The natural sample as collected were crumbled and placed loosely in the containers and the containers with the samples were weighed together to the nearest 0.01 g as . The containers were placed in the oven and dried at for 24 hours before the containers with the samples were removed and weighed dry to the nearest 0.01 g as . The NMC was calculated using in Equation 1.

Specific gravity test was done in accordance with BS EN ISO 17892-12 [17]. The samples were screened on British Standard sieve in order to remove unwanted particles and other materials. The weight of empty density bottle was recorded as . The sample was filled into the density bottle and weighed; the weight was recorded as (weight of bottle + dry sample). The density bottle was then filled with distilled water to gauge mark, soon after the end of soaking, air entrapped and bubbles on the surface of the aggregate sample was removed by shaking the density bottle and the weight was recorded as (weight of bottle + dry sample + distilled water), after which the bottle was emptied
and oven dry. The density bottle was then filled up with distilled water and weighed as (weight of bottle + distilled water). Equation 2 was used to determine the specific gravity of the soil.

The particle size distribution was conducted in accordance with BS EN 933-1 [18]. The test sample was oven dried at temperature of and weighed. The sample was sieved with a set of BS sieves and electric sieve shaker. On completion of sieving, the materials on each sieve were weighed. Cumulative weight passing through each sieve was calculated as a percentage of the total sample weight.

The atterberg limits (LL, Plastic Limit and PI) tests were determined in accordance to ASTM, D4318 [19]. For the Liquid Limit (LL), 200 g oven dried sample of the soil passing the 425 mm sieve was mixed with water on a glass plate in order to properly saturate it and was covered for about 24 hours. At the end of the period, the sample was properly remixed using spatulas. The cone penetrometer was properly adjusted in position in readiness for the test. The sample cup was filled with the mixed sample and the initial reading was observed. It was allowed to penetrate into the sample for five seconds and the final reading was equally noted. Some quantity of soil was then taken from the cup for moisture content determination. The soil in the cup was returned to the glass plate. The soil in the cup was returned to the glass plate. The water content was slightly increased and the soil was properly re-mixed, the cup was properly cleaned. The whole process was repeated five times. From the same soil sample, threads of about 3 mm diameter were obtained by kneading and rolling and the moisture content was determined to achieve Plastic Limit (PL). The Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the soil.

Fired cement lateritic bricks were produced using mould (Fig 1). Varying percentages of cement ( , and ) by weight of laterite were used to produced (Three samples each) stabilized and un-stabilized (control) fired lateritic bricks. Moulding of mud was done through mixing of the lateritic clay at its natural moisture content with water. The mixture was kneaded by hand for until it becomes ready for moulding. The machine moulds were first coated with sand to prevent the mixture from sticking. The prepared mixture were then placed and pressed into the coated moulds. Thereafter, removal of the excess material from the mould and smoothening the brick using trimming tools was done. The formed bricks in the moulds were lined in a certain order on the compressed earth and allow to dry. The compressed bricks were removed from the mould and allowed to dry naturally for 3 days and were fired for 8 hours at a using kiln. A total number of One Hundred and Thirty-Two (132) fired bricks were produced. The bricks were cured by sprinkling with water for 28 days. Thirty-three (33) samples each were subjected to compressive strength, Water Absorption Capacity (WAC), abrasion and impact tests.

Fig. 1: Moulding of Cement Stabilized Lateritic Bricks

Fig. 1. Moulding of Cement Stabilized Lateritic Bricks

Compressive strengths of the bricks were determined using CR2-030 hydraulic compression machine of 2000 kN Capacity in accordance to ASTM C773-88 [20]. The WAC, abrasion and impact tests were determined in accordance to National Building Code [14]. The tests on the fired bricks were carried out on both the cement stabilized and un-stabilized fired lateritic bricks at the Geotechnical Engineering Laboratory, Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, South Western Nigeria.

Results and Discussion

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Index properties

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The result of the NMC of the soil sample was which varied from findings of Oyelami [21], Olofinyo et al., [22] and Ige et al., [23]. Variation in NMC of lateritic soils are influenced by climate, hydrological condition of the area and the topography of the area [24].

The results of the specific gravity of the soil samples in this study was 2.66 . The result is in agreement with previous studies by Ademila [24], Oyelami [21], Olofinyo et al., [22] and Ige et al., [23].

The particle size distribution analysis of lateritic soil is as presented in Table 1. The index properties of the natural lateritic soil sample classified the soil as fair to poor (A-6) and Clay of High compressibility (CH) according to ASTM D-3282 [15] and USCS Classification system as per ASTM D-2487 [25].

Table 1: Result of particle size distribution analysis of lateritic soil

Sieve Size
(mm)
Weight Retained
(g)
Weight
Retained (%)
Passing
(%)

9.50
0
0
100

4.75
0
0
100

2.36
0
0
100

1.18
30
15
85

0.60
22
11
74

0.30
38
19
55

0.15
24
12
43

0.075
06
03
40

The results of the atterberg limits were and for LL, PL and PI, respectively. Soil samples with LL of < 30% are considered to be of low plasticity and compressibility, those with LL between 30 and exhibits medium plasticity and compressibility while those with LL exhibits high plasticity and compressibility. LL of the soils used in this study are medium plasticity which are suitable for earth buildings [21,26].

Compressive strength of bricks

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.29.pdf

The average compressive strength of the cement stabilized and un-stabilized fired lateritic bricks are presented in Fig. 2. The 28th-days compressive strength shows that the strength of the bricks increases from at cement replacement (un-stabilized bricks) to at cement stabilized bricks. Thereafter, a fall in strength from at stabilized bricks to at stabilized bricks. Hence, cement stabilized bricks have the highest compressive strength. Based on this, the bricks are suitable for use as load bearing walling material in accordance to NIS 87 [27]. The results in this study are within the minimum values recommended for characteristic compressive strengths for non-load-bearing and load-bearing fired clay bricks which are 3 to and 5 to , respectively [28,29]. The Nigerian National Building Code [14] specifies minimum value of for fired clay burnt bricks. This further satisfies the usefulness of the fired cement lateritic bricks as a walling material.

Fig. 2: Result of Compressive Strength of Lateritic Bricks

Fig. 2. Result of Compressive Strength of Lateritic Bricks

Water absorption capacity of bricks

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The result of the WAC (Fig. 3) shows that the water absorbs by the bricks decreases from at control (un-stabilized fired bricks) to at cement stabilized fired bricks but later increases from 3.65% at 6% cement stabilized fired bricks to a constant value of 5.5% WAC between 6.5-7.5% cement stabilized fired bricks. The maximum absorption was attained at control mix (un-stabilized fired bricks) where the minimum strength was attained. The un-stabilized bricks and cement stabilized bricks are within maximum value of WAC for clay bricks reported by Timothy et al., [29] and, Bassah and Joshua [30]. The WAC of the bricks are also in agreement with the recommended value of specified National Building Code [14]. The presence of cement in the lateritic soil lead to reduction in water absorption of the fired bricks, and similar trend was established by Phonphuak et al., [31].

Fig. 3: Water Absorption of Lateritic Bricks

Fig. 3. Water Absorption of Lateritic Bricks

Abrasion of bricks

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The abrasion test result of the cement stabilized and un-stabilized fired lateritic bricks varied between and (Fig. 4). The maximum abrasion was attained at cement addition where the minimum compressive strength was attained while the minimum abrasion value was attained at cement addition where the maximum compressive strength was attained which indicate a better surface wearing. The implication of the above results is that the stabilized fire brick has better resistance to wearing effect due to low weight loss which makes it more suitable for construction purpose.

Fig. 4: Graph of Abrasion of Bricks

Fig. 4. Graph of Abrasion of Bricks

Impact value of bricks

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The result of the impact value test performed on the bricks as shown in Fig. 5 varied between 12 and for all the cement variation in the mix. The maximum impact value was attained at cement addition (un-stabilized fired bricks) where the minimum compressive strength was attained
while the minimum impact value was attained at cement stabilized fired bricks where the maximum compressive strength was attained. The lower the impact value, the more the strength of the bricks to withstand external force (high resistance to sudden shock). This implies that the bricks at cement stabilized fired bricks will reduce shattering effects of bricks when subjected to sudden external force.

Fig. 5: Result of Impact Value of Lateritic Bricks

Fig. 5. Result of Impact Value of Lateritic Bricks

Conclusion

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From the findings, it was observed that the lateritic soil belongs to the category of silty clay. The NMC and specific gravity results of the lateritic soil is in agreement with stipulated recommended values. The LL of the soils used belongs to medium plasticity category which are suitable for building construction. It could also be inferred that as the percentage of cement increases from control (unstabilized cement fired bricks) to (stabilized cement fired bricks), the compressive strength also increases. However, further increment in cement percentage after 5% resulted into a decrease in the compressive strength of the bricks. In addition, the water absorption capacity decreased up to and further increased at ; the abrasion value indicates an irregularities in deduction while the impact value decreased up to and further increased at . Based on these, it is recommended that cement stabilized fired brick should be used as walling materials since it possess the optimum strength, low water absorption rate and better resistance to surface wearing and sudden shock (impact). Hence, cement stabilized fired brick is also suitable for use as walling materials since the compressive strengths is above the minimum strength specified by Nigerian National Building Code.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.29.pdf

B.H. Abubakar, R. Putrajaya, H. Abdulaziz, Malaysian rice husk ash-improving the durability and corrosion resistance of concrete: pre-view, Conc. Res. Let. 1(1) (2010) 6-13.

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G.S. Olaoye, N.A. Anigbogu, Properties of compressed earth bricks stabilized with termite mound materials, Nigerian J. Constr. Tech. Managem. 3(1) (2000) 150-156.

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S.O. Odeyemi, M.A. Anifowose, S.A. Bello, Z.T. GIWA, U.N. Wilson, Strength properties and microstructure of sandcrete blocks incorporated with maize straws, Advan. Eng. Forum, 46 (2022) 71-78.

A.A. Raheem, A.K. Momoh, A.A. Soyingbe, Comparative analysis of sandcrete hollow blocks and laterite interlocking blocks as walling elements, Int. J. Sustain. Const. Eng. Tech. 3(1) (2012) 79-88.

A.A. Raheem, O.K. Sulaiman, Saw dust ash as partial replacement for cement in the production of sandcrete hollow blocks, Int. J. Eng. Res. Applicat. 3(4) (2013) 713-721.

D. Neslihan, N. Adnan, Traditional manufacturing of clay bricks in the historical building of diyarbakir, Frontiers Architect. Res. 6 (2017) 346-359.

J.I. Aguwa, Performance of laterite-cement blocks as walling units in relation to sandcrete blocks, Leonardo Electron. J. Practic. Technolog. 9(16) (2010) 189-200.

S.O. Odeyemi, M.A. Akinpelu, O.D. Atoyebi, R.T. Yahaya, R.T. Determination of load carrying capacity of clay bricks reinforced with straw, Int. J. Sust. Constr. Eng. Techn. 8(2) (2017) 57-65.

E.A. Adam, A.R.A Agib, Compressed stabilized earth block manufacture in Sudan, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Paris, (2001) Available at:

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 39-50

doi: 10.4028/p-9Mvy7e

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2022-10-20

Revised:
2023-03-21

Accepted:
2023-03-25

Online:
2023-10-13

Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.39.pdf

Sheam Bahjat Abdulkareem*

Al Farabi University College, Baghdad, Iraq

sheam.bahgat@alfarabiuc.edu.iq

Keywords: Advanced oxidation process, Fenton, oxidation, Heterogeneous catalysis, Wastewater

Abstract

After treating industrial wastewater efficiently and adequately to avoid harm from it being reused and disposed of in the past, the majority of countries in the world have moved to integrated planning and sound management to reuse it. The efficiency of water treatment and reuse depends on a set of environmental standards and controls that are connected to the nature of this water and the eventual purpose of treating and reusing it in order to prevent the environmental repercussions of an integrated method. A framework that assures environmental protection must be employed for this treatment and reuse. The emphasis is on developing reusable resources in order to transition from a linear to a circular economy. Finding the primary pathway for heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis to pollutant degradation, optimizing the layout for integrating Fenton processes into large-scale treatment plants, particularly its coupling with biological treatment, and analyzing or enhancing heterogeneous catalyst lifetime are all important. are some of the main challenges mentioned in this research. This study intends to analyze the efficacy of the Fenton process in treating water in an effective and economical way compared to other conventional techniques.

1.Introduction

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Over the course of the last century, wealthy nations have increasingly worried about water contamination. Since every living thing needs water to survive, it naturally has far-reaching consequences for the planet. Therefore, the quality of the effluent that is left over is sufficient for its intended application. With the help of national and international water quality agreements and rules, we have the technology to clean wastewater and release it back into the environment in pristine form. However, research into more cutting-edge and user-friendly technology is required to make wastewater treatment a procedure accessible worldwide with minimal environmental effect and waste. The Fenton process is studied here; this is an Advanced Oxidation Processes reaction, and it has a promising future in this area (AOPs).
In recent years, The Fenton method has drawn increased attention as a means of handling challenging industrial effluent. In a relatively short period of time, chemical engineers have made enormous contributions to modern life. Chemical engineers create and design the processes used to make everything from antibiotics and other medicines to fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, and polymers that are physiologically compatible for use in biomedical devices. Chemical engineers solve issues that emerge in the manufacturing and use of numerous products, including chemicals, fuel, medicines, and meals.[1].
Through the targeted addition of particular substances, chemical wastewater treatment causes contaminants that are dissolved in wastewater to separate more easily. Precipitation transforms a dissolved substance into a dissoluble substance that can be removed from the liquid by filtering. [2] Removing pollutants such as heavy metals, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, and pesticides from wastewater requires the use of multiple chemicals in a complex and timeconsuming process called wastewater treatment. Industries such as pharmaceuticals, power and paper use wastewater treatment chemicals. The main chemicals used in wastewater treatment and their typical applications are discussed in the next section. Wastewater treatment can be divided into
three distinct stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary. In other cases, further purification is required, and this is where quaternary water treatment comes into play. [3]
Chemical precipitation is used to purify water and wastewater by converting dissolved chemicals in water into solid particles. Chemical precipitation is used to remove ionic components from water by adding counter ions to reduce their solubility. Mechanical, biological and chemical processes of wastewater treatment:

Ion exchange.

Chemical stabilization.

Chemical precipitation.

Chemical oxidation by using oxidation reagents such as hydrogen peroxide, chlorine peroxide and ozone for reduction of residual COD.
Chemicals Used in breaking down pollutants in Wastewater are:

Coagulants.

Control of odor.

Flocculants.

Deformers.

Natural Polymers.

Agent Reduction.

Conditioners for sludge.

Degreasing and cleaning agents. [4, 5, 6]

1-1- Water organic matter

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Organic compounds in water are referred to as "water organic matter" in the scientific literature. The remnants of species such as plants, animals, and microorganisms can be categorized as either non-humid (consisting of protein, carbs, organic acids, etc.) or humid (consisting of humus). Water's physical and chemical properties, as well as its capacity for self-purification, degradation, migration, and transformation, can be affected by the presence of organic matter. [7, 8, 9]

1-2 - Resources of organic wastewater

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Organic pollutants, which make up the majority of contaminants in wastewater, are just one type. Wastewater contains a variety of organic substances, including polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs). Organic wastewater that is harmful to water quality can come from a wide range of human activities, such as the use of phenols, herbicides, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aliphatic and heterocyclic chemicals, industrial and agricultural output, and human habitation. [10] Wastewater from the food industry typically contains complex organic contaminants including SS and BOD. The concentration of pesticides and herbicides in farm wastewater may be rather high. Many different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been found in coke plant wastewater. Heterogeneity chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), Oil, food, some dioxins, and other organics have all been found in wastewater from municipal sewage treatment plants. Toxic organic compounds in water supply endanger both aquatic life and human health.[11].

1-2 - 1- Common poisonous substances in organic wastewater

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The biological breakdown of the organic contaminants in the wastewater allows for the separation of the pollutants into two classes. Organic pollutants are readily broken down in nature because of their simple structures and high hydrophobicity. It is possible that microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae can degrade organic pollutants like methanol and polysaccharide. On the other hand, if they were to be present in large enough concentrations in wastewater, some of them, like acetone and methanol, might induce acute toxicity.. On the other hand, the metabolism of or other forms of degradation from persistent organic pollutants like DDT, PCBs, and PAHs occur extremely slowly. Some of them, like pesticides, were used extensively for a number of years. Despite the fact that they are less toxic and have a lower concentration in wastewater than soluble organic pollutants, they can
persist for years in sediment before moving into the water supply and eventually entering the food chain. The above-mentioned carcinogenic, teratogenic, and neurotoxic properties of many POPs, which are lipid soluble, are present. These organic pollutants draw more attention because they are persistent, easily transported, and toxic [12]
The following are the typical poisons found in organic wastewater:

1 - PCBs

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PCBs are made by combining biphenyl with anywhere from 2 to 10 chlorine atoms. Water from factories that produce transformers, capacitors, and electric motors often contains PCBs because these fluids are employed as dielectrics and coolants in these devices.[13]

2 - Nitrobenzene

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With the chemical formula , nitrobenzene is an organic substance. As a precursor to aniline, it is widely produced. It is occasionally used as a solvent in the lab, particularly for electrophilic reagents. Long-term exposure has the potential to seriously harm the central nervous system, impair vision, harm the liver or kidneys, cause anemia, and irritate the lungs.Additionally, nitrobenzene has been implicated in recent research as a possible carcinogen.

3 - Oregano -phosphorus pesticide

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Oregano phosphorus pesticide may be present in agricultural wastewater due of its persistence in the environment. In addition to inter media manufacturing and degradation processes, this pesticide is frequently found in high concentrations in the wastewater produced by oregano phosphorus pesticide factories. Water contaminated with organ phosphorus pesticides could have devastating effects on the ecosystem if released into the wild. Insecticides containing phosphorus from oregano can be extremely dangerous to your health. Organ phosphorus pesticides are extremely harmful, but they break down rapidly in nature.[14].

4 - Petroleum hydrocarbons

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The primary sources of petroleum hydrocarbons in the water system are municipal sewage and industrial wastewater. Different petroleum hydrocarbons from various industries, such as oil exploration, production, transportation, and refining, may be mixed together in the wastewater. Petroleum hydrocarbons are poisonous to aquatic life and can worsen water quality by coating surfaces with an oily film, which reduces the exchange of oxygen between the air and the water. [15]

5 - Atrazine

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Conservation tillage techniques, which aim to reduce soil erosion, typically involve the application of the herbicide atrazine. This chemical herbicide might prevent and reduce grassy and broadleaf weeds in dry agriculture, increasing the harvest of the primary crops. Atrazine-containing wastewater primarily originates from overburdened farmlands and the chemical industry that produces this product. Despite its propensity to persist in the environment for a very long time, this substance has been found in the drinking water of several countries and in the groundwater of many more. In hot conditions, atrazine has the potential to volatilize, producing harmful chemicals such carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides that can cause skin, eye, and respiratory irritation. Problems with menstruation, low birth weight, and birth defects have been linked to atrazine exposure below limits allowed by federal rules.

6 - Phenols

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The chemical compound class known as phenols is created when an aromatic hydrocarbon group and a hydroxyl group (-OH) are physically linked. The coking plant, refinery, insulating material manufacture, paper manufacturing, and phenolic chemical factory are the principal producers of phenol in the wastewater. Even in small doses, phenol is a serious health risk because it is a known human carcinogen. Phenol may also have the ability to reduce aquatic organisms' capacity for growth and reproduction.

1-2 - 2- Environmental hazards of organic wastewater

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A significant amount of soluble oxygen could be consumed by organic pollutants with a high hydrophilic content, such as oil and organic matter. Due to the acute toxicity and high oxygen demand, the aquatic biological system might sustain severe damage that would degrade the water quality. They could easily be broken down by microorganisms, so their negative impact on the environment won't last long.
Environmental elements (such as temperature and PH value) and ageing processes, as well as the properties of the contaminants, can all have an impact on how harmful organic wastewater is. Further research should be done on these elements as well as their long-term implications on the ecosystem.
[16]

1-3 - Monitoring analysis method of poisonous substances

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Common methods for measuring the concentration of organic compounds in wastewater include the chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and total organic carbon (TOC) tests.
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is predicated on the idea that given an acidic environment with an aggressive oxidizing agent, nearly all organic compounds can oxidize to carbon dioxide. Considering that the COD value is typically determined using the acidic potassium permanganate and potassium dichromate processes, it is probable that the results of this approach accurately reflect the level of pollution caused by reducing matter in water, such as ammonia and reducing sulfide. Therefore, wastewater with a high concentration of reducing matter will have a COD value that significantly underestimates the true concentration of organic pollutants.[17]
The BOD value is the concentration of dissolved oxygen in a water sample over a specified time period at a specified temperature at which aerobic biological organisms can decompose organic material.
A standard and reliable proxy for assessing the concentration of organic contaminants in water is the BOD value, which is typically represented in milligrams of oxygen utilized per liter of sample over five days of incubation at . Though it's commonly employed as a quantitative indicator of the organic matter in water, this test does not produce a definitive result on its own. [18]
The TOC measurement is used to determine how much total carbon is present in the water (both soluble and suspended). More correctly reflecting the amount of organic matter than BOD or COD is this approach, which during the evaluation might oxidase all organic contaminants utilizing combustion.
The COD, BOD, and TOC tests can swiftly identify organic pollution in wastewater, but they cannot distinguish between different forms of organic matter or the nature of the water, which means they cannot identify the total quantity of the same total organic carbon pollution caused by varied impacts [19].

1-4 - Chromatography-mass spectrometry method

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The organic pollutants in wastewater can be identified and separated using a cutting-edge method called chromatography-mass spectrometry. "Spectrometry" refers to a class of analytical methods used to purify substances in labs. Differential partitioning between the movable and stationary phases allows for the separation to take place. Retention on the stationary phase might vary depending on the structural features of the individual wastewater constituents, hence altering the separation.
It was feasible to ionize the organism and put it via an electric field using the mass spectrometer. Because lighter molecules' paths (trajectories) could be bent by the electric field more than heavier molecules', organic matter with different masses would strike the detector at various positions (each organic matter's position is fixed). The organic pollutants could be located and measured using this technique. The types of organic contaminants contained in a sample and their amounts might be fully described by combining chromatography and mass spectrometry.[20]

2 - Chemical Oxidation Technologies Under Normal Temperature and Pressure

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A growing number of molecules in today's wastewater streams are resistant to microorganisms, meaning that they cannot be adequately treated using traditional biological methods. As a result, it is essential that novel technologies be developed to convert these molecules into less harmful or lower chain compounds that can be treated biologically. Chemical oxidation is a modern method for reducing the harmful effects of chemical oxidants (such , and others) by breaking them down into less dangerous components.[21,22], figure 1 showed the advanced oxidation.

Fig. 1. The advanced oxidation process [22]

Fig. 1. The advanced oxidation process [22]

On the other hand, chemical oxidation methods employ oxidizing chemicals like ozone and hydrogen peroxide, and their rates of deterioration are far more manageable. As a result, researchers have developed advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) that utilize the high reactivity of hydroxyl radicals to promote oxidation as a potential strategy for treating wastewaters containing refractory organic compounds. Where these radicals originate is the primary distinction between procedures like Fenton, photo-Fenton, moist oxidation, zonation, and photo catalysis.
The main advanced oxidation process highlighted in this section, Fenton's chemistry, operates under ambient conditions (belonging to the class of AOPs).

3 - Fenton Process

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The Fenton's process, shown in Figure 2, was initially described in 1894 after it was discovered that the oxidation of tartaric acid by hydrogen peroxide is much enhanced in the presence of ferrous ion. In certain academic works, the intricate mechanism of Fenton's process is described with a large number of equations. However, the steps can be summarized as follows: Acidic solutions containing ferrous iron and hydrogen peroxide produce hydroxyl radicals, which subsequently react with organic molecules already present in the solution.[23]

The following mechanism appears to be responsible for the regeneration of iron (II) as a catalyst:

Fig. 2. Fenton Process [23]

Fig. 2. Fenton Process [23]

A crucial part of the Fenton reaction's process is the creation of hydroxyl radicals and hydroxide anions as a result of a single electron transfer from to in the outer sphere. Fluorine atoms
and hydroxyl radicals are the two chemical species that are most oxidizing. They are very powerful species that can absorb one electron from any other species in the media or from an organic substrate that is rich in electrons to create a hydroxide anion.. At pH 0 and pH 14 , respectively, the hydroxyl radical's oxidation potential has been calculated as +2.8 and +2.0 V . Because of 's high reactivity, a variety of organic compounds can be attacked by it. The Fenton reaction converts the carbons and heteroatoms of the organic substrate to inorganic species while also producing and the accompanying oxygenated species, such as NOx, SOx, and POx, which are formed by the heteroatoms. The cyclic reactions of Fenton chemistry, which occur in air, can be mathematically represented.

Operating pH , number of ferrous ions, hydrogen peroxide concentration, initial pollutant concentration, buffer type used to regulate pH , operating temperature, and chemical coagulation were utilized to determine the efficacy of applying Fenton oxidation to the treatment of wastewater. It's been established that a pH of 3 is ideal.. The efficiency of pollutant elimination increases when the dose of ferrous ions and hydrogen peroxide is raised. However, because to the risks to the environment and high costs of therapy associated with excessive doses, care should be used while deciding the dosage. The optimal dose must be established in comparable laboratory scale experiments or can be obtained in the open literature. [23],[17]
The traditional Fenton reaction, which generates high fluxes of hydroxyl radicals by combining hydrogen peroxide with an iron (II) salt, is a homogeneous catalytic reaction. As a result, issues like catalyst separation, regeneration, etc., that is common to homogeneous catalysis make the application of the traditional Fenton reaction difficult. Iron hydroxide must not precipitate, so pH must be carefully controlled. As a result, heterogeneous catalysts for the Fenton reaction have been created and evaluated using materials containing transition metal cations, especially iron ions. [24] The Fenton process dramatically reduces hazardous and resistant chemical molecules while also improving the biodegradability of organic compounds. Following Fenton treatment, the leachate's quality can be markedly enhanced in terms of its level of organic matter, odor, and color. Leachate from the composting of various wastes has been treated and pre-treated quite successfully using Fenton's reagent. According to leachate characteristics and Fenton reagent dosages, reported final BOD5/COD ratios can increase from initial values of less than 0.10 to values ranging from 0.14 to more than 0.60 . The reported range of COD elimination efficiency is 45 to . Leachate's color and smell can also be significantly diminished. In the Fenton treatment of a mature leachate, the decolorization efficiency can reach 92 percent [25].At [Fe2+]/[COD] = 0.1 , the ideal Fenton reaction conditions were discovered. Under these circumstances, there was a significant oxidation of both leachates, with a COD removal of and a BOD5 removal of 90-98%. It was discovered that Fenton's reagent oxidized leachate's preferably biodegradable organic matter. [23]
The capacity of EDTA, N-bis [2-(1,2-dicarboxyethoxy)ethyl]glycine (BCA5), and N-bis ]2- (1,2dicarboxyethoxy) ethyl]aspartic acid (BCA6) to breakdown complexing agents was investigated in bleaching wastewater. At a concentration of 76 mM , it was claimed that almost all of the EDTA had been removed.[17]

Due to its high COD value and low BOD 5 value, the wastewater from Paper Recycling Plants is considered to be environmentally harmful and intractable for biological treatment. Fenton Process is regarded as the most effective method for treating this wastewater. Studying the main factors influencing this oxidation, such as the doses of and and the dosing strategy of at a pH value of about 3, helped treat this water by oxidizing it with Fenton . The Fenton method demonstrated its efficacy by achieving a COD removal efficiency of 78.5 percent at a total peroxide dose of with a dosing strategy intermittently into four batches at 15-minute intervals. Additionally, it has been demonstrated through experimentation that intermittent dosing in four batches is superior to intermittent dosing in one batch in two aspects: the effectiveness of COD removal and the ratio of BOD 5 to COD. We achieved this ratio through intermittent dosing, which qualifies the water that has completed the oxidation process for biological treatment, at approximately 0.32 . With the need to maintain chlorine mixing basins to ensure the absence of sediments that lower the sterilization process' efficiency, the four-stage system with twice as much recovery for water treatment helps to raise treatment efficiency to about 99 percent. [26]

3-1 - Advanced Fenton Process

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The advanced Fenton process is a type of advanced chemical oxidation process that is used to break down complex organic compounds that are hard to biodegrade into simpler end products.
Advantages of using cutting-edge Fenton process technology

Decomposition of organic substances

toxicity reduction

Better decomposition of complex compounds

Remove color and odors

Starting with hydrogen peroxide and iron, the Advanced Fenton Process relies on the high reactivity of the hydroxyl radical to fulfill its goals under controlled temperature and temperature settings. In particular, hydroxyl radicals OH can be synthesized by reacting 35% hydrogen peroxide ( H 2 O 2 ) with ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) in an acidic environment ( ), with the acidity maintained by a dosage of sulfuric acid, and using the following equation::

According to chain processes, the OHO radical interacts in aqueous solution with the majority of aliphatic and aromatic compounds. This causes the CC bonds to break, which results in the degradation of pollutants. A retention period of around two hours is needed for this response. Hydrated lime or soda is introduced to the second tank, which also has a slow electric stirrer, to neutralize the drains and minimize the surplus of . A pH meter is used to measure the pH and adjust the amount of the reagent. A retention time of around an hour and a half is necessary during this second stage. [27]
The flocculation tank, a third step required by the Fenton reactor, is where the electrolytic dosage accelerates the separation of sludge flakes from the treated water. A minimum 15-minute contact time should be guaranteed by the flocculation tank. The water needs to be transported to a sedimentation tank after finishing Fenton's oxidative treatment in order to separate the cleared water from the sediment sludge. If it is essential to obtain a greater sludge density, a sludge thickening tank must also be provided because the sludge at this stage has a thickness of . The Fenton method, a biological treatment to remove nitrogen and phosphorous to improve water properties, was used to increase the effectiveness of water generated from some industrial and sewage treatment plants. Since it has been discovered that leaving nitrogen and phosphorous in waste water causes more environmental issues, especially when it is drained into drains, where it promotes the growth of a wide variety of plants, weeds, and fungi, reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, which kills fisheries, and causes the water to enter an anaerobic state, this method is particularly useful for industrial wastewater from carpet and textile factories.[17,26]

3-2 - Typical reactor used for Fenton oxidation

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A batch Fenton reactor consists of an unpressurized stirred reactor equipped with metering pumps for the addition of acid, base, a ferrous sulfate catalyst solution, and industrial grade ( percent) hydrogen peroxide. The reactor vessel should be coated with an acid-resistant material to protect it from the Fenton reagent's severe abrasiveness and the potential for significant corrosion.. Bringing the pH of the solution up to 6 will prevent iron hydroxide from developing. Many organic contaminants have an optimum Fenton reaction pH of , and a catalyst to peroxide ratio of . Hydrogen peroxide is added last to an acidic solution after a pH adjusting agent has been introduced (the pH is adjusted to 3-4) and a diluted sulfuric acid catalyst has been added. The Fenton reactor (Oxidation tank) effluent is sent into the neutralizing tank for pH correction after passing through the stream, a flocculation tank, and a solid-liquid separation tank to remove the precipitate (adjustment of pH at 9). Schematic representation of Fenton oxidation procedure shown in Figure 3. [16],[28]

Fig. 3 Typical reactor used for Fenton oxidation. [16]

Fig. 3. Typical reactor used for Fenton oxidation. [16]

3-3 -Sono Fenton

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The formation of iron oxide nanoparticles is consistent with the sonolysis or sono chemical approach, which makes use of the physical effects of ultrasound (US) and the sonic cavitation that is formed by it. Sonolysis offers an alternate method for producing iron oxide nanoparticles to utilizing high pressure, high temperature, and prolonged reactions; Fenton and sonolysis can be combined. These techniques take advantage of Fenton's reagent and ultrasound's advantages, which can accelerate the breakdown of organic contaminants. The recombination of hydroxyl radical's results in the production of hydrogen peroxide once more, however UV light treatment increases the quantity of hydroxyl radicals once more. By using sonolysis and photolysis, the intermediate complex that resulted from the interaction of with during the Fenton reaction could be converted to [28, 30], figure 4 illustrated mechanism schematic of sono/Fenton-like processes.

Fig.4. Mechanism schematic of sono/Fenton-like processes. [28]

Fig.4. Mechanism schematic of sono/Fenton-like processes. [28]

3-4-Electro Fenton

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One of the effective and sustainable new methods for the treatment of wastewaters containing organic, particularly aromatic chemicals is electro Fenton. An innovative treatment technology for the treatment of wastewater and water is the electro-Fenton method. By using hydroxyl radicals to oxidase dangerous pollutants, Electro-Fenton is highly effective in treating stubborn substances that are difficult to break down in traditional water and wastewater treatment facilities. Additionally, the electro Fenton process uses a variety of electrolytic reactors, including double compartment cells, bubble reactors, filter press reactors, split double electrode electrochemical cells, and divided three electrode electrochemical cells ([29],[27]. The Electro-Fenton Process' kinetic modeling was depicted in Figure 5.

Fig. 5. The kinetic modeling of the Electro-Fenton Process [29]

Fig. 5. The kinetic modeling of the Electro-Fenton Process [29]

4 - Biological Treatment Technology of Organic Wastewater

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Biodegradation employs microorganisms, fungi, green plants, and their enzymes to remove or neutralize environmental pollutants. Biodegradation, which can occur naturally and is now used in wastewater treatment, is one environmentally benign and cost-effective solution to the problem of dirty water.. The organic components in wastewater have been removed using chemical, physical, and biological approaches, with the biological method receiving the most attention due to its superiority on both an economic and ecological level. The characteristics of the organic material have some bearing on the pace and degree of biodegradation. Some organic pollutants, such as organic matter and organic phosphorus insecticides, are readily accessible and simple to breakdown because of their relatively high water solubility and low acute toxicity[30]. Drugs have greater bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and biotoxicity, and are slow to biodegrade in the natural environment compared to many POPs and xenobiotic organic pollutants.. Organic material can decompose either anaerobically (without oxygen) or aerobically (with oxygen). [31]

4-1-Combination of the aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation

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Organic pollutants are more effectively degraded by the anaerobic and aerobic reactor when they are combined than when they are done separately. Some advantages of the integrated system include the following:
(1) In some cases, the anaerobic process can decrease the organic load on aerobic degradation and the creation of aerobic sludge, get rid of the organic materials and suspended solid in wastewater, and cut down on the overall size of the reactors..
(2) Anaerobic pretreatment of wastewater results in more stable wastewater, which suggests that anaerobic procedure might lessen wastewater load variability and, as a result, lower the oxygen demand for aerobic degradation.
(3) The next aerobic process might be more effective by altering the biochemical characteristics of the wastewater through the anaerobic process. Investigations revealed that the wastewater produced by aerobic-anaerobic mixed reactors is more stable and prepared for degradation, demonstrating the enormous potential for use of this technology.
Traditional aerobic-anaerobic reactors include the oxidation ditch, A/O reactor, A2/O reactor, artificial wetland, and A/O reactor;[32], [33].

5 - The Cost Accounting of Different Organic Wastewater Treatment

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The construction expense and the operating expense make up the two components of the cost of treating organic wastewater. The properties of the influent, the technique we used, the effluent's qualities, and the time spent treating them all, etc. all have an impact on the overall cost. Degradable and resistant pollutants are separated in this section.

5-1 - The degradable organic pollutants

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Sewage from homes, industries dealing with food and livestock, etc. are common sources of wastewater containing organic pollutants that can be degraded. In a natural setting, the high BOD in this effluent may break down over time. Degradable organic contaminants can be remedied using a wide variety of methods, but biological treatments are favored because of their efficacy and practical advantages.[34]

5-2 - The reluctant organic pollutants

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The paper industry, chemical industry, printing and dyeing wastewater, mechanical manufacturing industry, agriculture, pharmaceutical intermediates, pesticides, etc., are major contributors to the benzene series and other persistent organic pollutants. [35] Due to the fact that this wastewater is poisonous or too solid to break down naturally, its disposal costs are typically higher than those of degradable wastewater..
Some studies hypothesized that the cost may be decreased without compromising the effluent quality by combining the flocculation approach with other procedures, such as the Fenton biological process. In general, if the contaminants are biodegradable, the biological procedure is the least expensive of all the methods.
The wastewater might be disposed of using flocculation and adsorption procedures at a reasonable cost, but the flocculants and adsorbent need additional processing before being repurposed. Pollutants might be effectively removed through membrane separation and advanced oxidation, but they are expensive.

6- Conclusions

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Several advancements in the Fenton process have been made in recent years, largely as a result of research efforts. Investigating hybrid approaches like photo-Fenton, electro-Fenton, and sono-Fenton is important for the Fenton process to be considered practicable for industrial treatment facilities. At the moment, regenerating Fenton sludge is crucial for continuing studies. In most cases, the Fenton process has been studied after thermal regeneration and acidic re-dissolution of iron-containing materials.
More research on the development of the Fenton process is necessary to show its economic and commercial feasibility. Because charcoal is so inexpensive, the Fenton process is one of the most cost-effective ways to treat industrial and sewage water over time. It is one of the most effective methods for eliminating chemical and biological pollutants that are resistant to decomposition and contributes to a roughly 99 percent treatment efficiency.

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Patterson J. W. Industrial wastewater treatment technology Second Edition. Butterworth Publishers, Stoneham, MA. USA. (2008)

Matavos-Aramyan S. Moussavi M., Advances in Fenton and Fenton Based Oxidation Processes for Industrial Effluent Contaminants Control-A Review. 2 (2017) 1-18

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 51-59

doi: 10.4028/p-4VM7ff

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-02-28

Accepted:
2023-04-11

Online:
2023-10-13

Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.51.pdf

UMERENKOVA Ksenia , BORYSENKO Vitalii , KONDRATENKO Olexandr , LIEVTIEROV Anton

National University of Civil Defence of Ukraine, 94, Chernishevska str., Kharkiv, Ukraine, 61023

A.M. Pidgorny Institute for Mechanical Engineering Problems of NAS of Ukraine, 2/10, Dmytra Pozharskogo str., Kharkiv, Ukraine, 61046

umerenkovaksenia8@gmail.com, vitbor7@gmail.com, kondratenkoom2016@gmail.com, dantmix1947@gmail.com

Keywords: ecological safety, environment protection technologies, reciprocating internal combustion engines, alternative motor fuels, thermophysical properties, phase equilibrium, mathematical model, perturbation theory, forecasting.

Abstract

The article analyzes the state of the global problem of the fuel and energy crisis and environmental pollution by the combustion products of hydrocarbon fuels of industrial and transport power plants. To ensure the energy security of the state, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine developed and adopted the «Energy Strategy of Energy Saving of Ukraine for the period until 2030>>, which was updated in 2008, to protect the country from energy risks. In addition, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine approved the «Concept of a targeted scientific and technical program for the development of the production and use of biological fuels>>. To increase the efficiency of using alternative motor fuels, as one of the aspects of solving the problem, an original method and results of calculating the thermophysical properties of a wide class of such motor fuels (hydrogen, natural gas, biogas, mine gas, coke, blast furnace and synthesis gas, etc.) are proposed. A description of the developed mathematical model for determining parameters of phase equilibria and thermophysical properties of dense molecular systems (dense gases and liquids) is given. Calculation procedures are based on the thermodynamic theory of disturbances without the involvement of empirical parameters. Features of the proposed method are: limitation of initial information, high accuracy, the possibility of application in any practically important ranges of states. Calculation errors are at the level of traditional experimental errors.

Introduction

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In ecology, pollution is defined as a violation of the optimal state of the living environment. When considering environmental pollution [ 1,2 ], a distinction is made between natural pollution caused mainly by catastrophic causes (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, dust storms, mudflows, etc.), and anthropological pollution caused by human activity [3, 4]. As a result of human activity, of natural substances go to waste and only about constitute a useful social product.
Protection of atmospheric air [5], water resources [6, 7] and soil from contamination by various pollutants is one of the main tasks of preserving the quality [8, 9] of the environment for current and future generations of people [10,11].
At the same time, the development and implementation of environmentally friendly technologies [12, 13], according to the world's leading forecasters, is a vital necessity of humanity, that is, it has a global character [2].
The main causes of anthropogenic environmental pollution in the industrialized countries of the world are the fuel and energy complex, industry [14, 15], and transport. Moreover, reciprocating internal combustion engines (RICE) used in motor vehicles are the main pollutants of the atmosphere of cities with carcinogenic and mutagenic ingredients. These substances can cause changes in hereditary properties in the human body, disrupting the genetic programs of cells [16].
The European Parliament made changes to the rules for controlling harmful emissions of RICE.

They provide for the introduction of a ban on the sale (not on the production) of cars with RICE on the territory of the EU from 2035. According to the approved changes, all new cars on the European market must produce zero and emissions. So, all cars with diesel and gasoline engines, hybrids, in particular, will fall under the sales ban. Some car manufacturers have already supported this initiative of the European Commission aimed at protecting the climate. After all, road transport is responsible for approximately of all greenhouse gas emissions in the EU, and the most of the emission falls on passenger cars.
The products of fuel combustion, including the exhaust gas (EG) of automobile RICE, emit harmful substances in gaseous form ( , etc.) or in the form of aerosols (solid or liquid): carcinogenic hydrocarbons, particulate matters. The main consumers of petroleum fuels, the reserves of which are limited and close to exhaustion, are vehicles with RICE.
Therefore, their environmentalization (or ecologization, or greening) should be carried out taking into account the indicated two-faceted (consumption of non-renewable energy resources and the impact of combustion products on environment components) fuel problem.

Problem Formulation

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In the source [17] the approach for numerical assessment of the working performance of city bus with diesel engine using alternative fuels was developed, in source [18] the prospects for the use of alternative fuels and methods of determining their thermophysical characteristics were described, in source [19] the main provisions of the theory of disturbances were determined, in source [20] the main prerequisites and preliminary calculations for this study were performed.
Approaches to solving the problems of accumulation of solid waste from the production activities of industrial enterprises by developing of EPT and utilization of combustible waste as materials for fuel briquettes are given in the article [21]. Issues of high-temperature utilization of carboncontaining solid waste are covered in the study [22,23], the use of organic high molecular weight waste from the food industry - in the study [24], features the use of renewable fuel sources in energy-generating facilities studied in the study [25], issues of reliable, rapid and low-cost detection of urban air pollution - in the study [26,27].
Additionally substantiate the relevance of the study presented in this article, the results of an analysis of the efficiency of using alternative fuels in vehicles from the source [28], as well as a calculated assessment of the thermophysical properties of biogas used as a fuel for transport, performed by the authors using a less perfect version of the mathematical model, improved in this study, described in the article [29].
Thus, the results of the analysis of current trends in the market of traditional and alternative energy carriers, in particular motor fuels, show that the main complex problem is the greening of piston engines as sources of mechanical energy (especially when they are used as part of power plants that generate electricity in blackout conditions in our country caused by energy shortage as a result of the armed aggression of the russian federation and the republic of belarus), consuming alternative motor fuels, which can be formulated in the following definition of the purpose of this study.
The purpose of the study is to improve the mathematical tools for determining the thermophysical properties of alternative motor fuels as a means of increasing the ecological safety level of using of power plants (PP) with RICE.
The object of the study is alternative motor fuels as a means of increasing the ecological safety level of the use of PP with RICE.
The subject of the study is thermophysical properties of alternative motor fuels.

Analysis of Publications

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.51.pdf

The analysis of scientific and technical literature shows that the main directions in the modern developments of leading foreign companies are focused on improving the environmental performance of diesel engines, reducing the toxicity of their EG, improving the organization of working processes, researching and improving the physical properties of alternative motor fuels
(AMF). Abroad, the production of gas engines is quite well developed, and a number of companies produce engines that run on conventional fuels and on biogas ( BG ) or natural gas ( NG ).
For example, the Austrian company Ienbacher Berke produces serial gas engines with an effective power of , the West German Maschinenwerke (Augsburg-Nuremberg) - engines running on NG, which are easily modified in the case of BG use. The power of the engines is 99130 kW . Daimler-Benz (Stuttgart, Germany) produces the M407 medium-power engine, which runs on NG with the possibility of its modification for BG [18].
In Ukraine, there is still no mass application of AMF for power plants (PP) with RICE, therefore the development of this direction is urgent.
For research related to the specifics of the use of AMF for transport diesel engines, it is necessary to solve tasks that allow predicting the necessary thermophysical properties of various fuels. The creation of modern methods will make it possible to obtain these properties in a wide range of states - liquefied gas to parameters of combustion or thermal decomposition.

Based on the analysis of existing calculation methods [18], it was concluded that various model schemes and empirical dependencies (the theory of corresponding states, lattice models, group models) can give acceptable quantitative results in limited ranges of states. At the same time, significant initial information about the properties of components and their mixtures is required for calculations. As for the practically important area - the liquid phase of AMF, the methods mentioned here are usually not acceptable.

Presentation of the Main Material of the Study

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The main directions in solving fuel and environmental problems of road transport are as follows.

Use of unconventional, including alternative, motor fuels. AMF include: NG, as the most efficient energy carrier; synthetic motor fuels (SMF); biofuels, including BG; hydrogen ( ), which can be used as a highly effective additive to combustible mixtures and as a necessary component in the production of SMF, as well as the main energy carrier.

Improvement of work processes of RICE. At the same time, it is known that you should not expect a significant improvement in engine efficiency without making structural changes. This requires the development and implementation of technology for conversion of existing gasoline and diesel car engines, as well as the creation of modern «environmental engines».
The use of NG and BG as a motor fuel for transport helps to reduce the level of emissions of harmful substances with the EG flow. Thus, compared to gasoline engines, the content of toxic substances in the combustion products of gas engines decreases [17]: Pb from 0.42 to ; from 5.5 to from 257.3 to from 83.2 to from 1.46 to . As can be seen, the use of PG and BG instead of gasoline allows you to significantly reduce the level of toxicity of EG, which is one of the important aspects of solving this problem. Its essence consists in the development of PP with RICE, adapted to AMF, and their partial replacement of traditional petroleum fuels.
Studying their thermophysical properties is important in the process of adapting engines to AMF. Information about the thermophysical properties of fuels allows for more accurate simulation of RICE working cycle processes, improvement of the design and characteristics of dosing devices of engine fuel supplying systems, characteristics of electronic control systems.
The analysis of scientific and technical literature shows that the main trends in modern developments of leading foreign companies are focused on improving the environmental performance of diesel engines, primarily reducing the toxicity of their EG, improving the organization of work processes, researching and improving the physical properties of AMF. Abroad, the production of gas RICE is quite well developed and a number of companies produce engines that run on traditional fuel and on BG or NG. In Ukraine, there is still no mass application of AMF for PP with RICE, therefore the development of this direction is urgent.
For theoretical and experimental studies related to the specifics of the use of AMF for transport diesel engines, it is necessary to solve tasks that allow predicting the necessary thermophysical properties of various fuels. The creation of modern methods will make it possible to determine these
properties in a wide range of states - from liquefied gas to parameters of combustion or thermal decomposition. Based on the analysis of existing calculation methods, it was concluded that various model schemes and empirical dependences can give acceptable quantitative results in limited ranges of states. At the same time, calculations require a significant amount of initial data on the properties of components and their mixtures. However, for use in a practically important area - the liquid phase of AMF, these methods cannot be applied.
This state of the issue necessitates the development of modern statistical-mechanical methods for describing the properties of AMFs, which use a minimum of initial data and parameters. The conducted studies are devoted to the application of the original modified scheme of thermodynamic perturbation theory (TPT) [18, 19] to describe the properties of AMFs, which are multicomponent mixtures (NG and BG).
The specific (per particle) free energy of the -component mixture within the TMT, which takes into account the second order, has the form of formula (1). The initial stage of property calculations in a two-phase -component system is the determination of the density of the mixture at the specified temperature and pressure . Calculations of phase equilibrium, i.e. determination of the compositions of the liquid (index ) and vapor (index ) phases and their density values, are performed based on formal system of equations of the form (2), in which pressure of the mixture; - chemical potential of the -th component.
The numerical implementation of the developed mathematical model is carried out using a computer program for determining phase equilibrium and thermophysical properties of the liquid and vapor phases of multicomponent AMFs, which also includes a subroutine for calculating properties in the single-phase region (homogeneous state).
The properties of the following components and their mixtures are determined: marginal hydrocarbons ( , n- , i- , n- , i- , ); inert gases ( ); nitrogen carbon dioxide; CO carbon monoxide; hydrogen ; oxygen ; water ; hydrogen sulfide ; benzene etc.

where - free energy of an -component mixture of hard spheres; -concentration (mole fraction) of the -th component; - Boltzmann constant; given particle number density; and parameters of initial potentials of intermolecular interaction (the Lennard-Jones potential is used ; generalization of group integrals of the first and second orders for mixtures [3].
If the coexisting phases are formed from the original mixture , where set of initial molar concentrations, then system (2) is supplemented with material balance equations for phases , as well as the equation for the distribution of mixture components between phases . Value -gas content, determines the mole fraction of the
vapor phase of the two-phase mixture. This allows to calculate the equilibrium compositions for such phases.
These sets provide, in particular, a description of NG, gas condensate, mine gas, energy carriers based on hydrogen, nitrogen, working bodies of fuel cells of electrochemical generators and other mixtures. Determined properties: equation of state ( - ratio, density); coefficients of thermal expansion and isothermal compression; phase equilibria «liquid-vapor»; energy (Gibbs, internal, free); enthalpy; entropy; heat capacity ( ).
State ranges:

liquid state: pressure - from the lines of paraliquid equilibrium to 1000 MPa (or to the lines of crystallization), temperature - from the triple point to the critical point;

gaseous (fluid) state: pressure - up to 1000 MPa , temperature - up to 5000 K (or pyrolysis temperatures).
During the modeling of phases equilibrium, numerous new data were obtained on the phase diagrams of mixtures typical for working bodies, in particular, various basic binary mixtures. Their thermodynamic properties are determined taking into account the TMT formula (1).
Calculation of phases equilibrium parameters and thermophysical properties was performed for a wide range of model of working bodies of the hydrocarbon type. A comparison of the obtained calculated values with the experimental data available in the literature and with the calculated values determined by other methods allows us to conclude that the proposed model better identifies the existing experimental results. The property calculations in the software package do not contain fitted parameters and empirical correlations and are based only on the obtained data on the interaction potentials of substances. Average calculation errors are at the level of conventional experimental ones (for modern experimental methods). This eliminates the need for timeconsuming and expensive experimental research, which gives a significant economic effect.
In Fig. 1 shows the diagram of phases equilibrium of liquid-vapor mixtures of methane-ethane at the indicated temperatures. In Fig. 1 also shows the phase diagram of the basic binary methaneethane mixture for a set of isotherms. Comparison with experimental data (icons) allows us to estimate the errors in the description of the compositions of the liquid and vapor phases of about . As a rule, there are no experimental data when approaching the critical points, so the calculated values predict the phase behavior of mixtures in these areas.
In Table 1, the values of the molar volume of the hydrocarbon mixture obtained by calculation, corresponding to the possible composition of NG or BG, are compared with experimental data given in the literature [18]. The calculation error shows a good agreement between the experimental and calculated values. As a result of solving the problem of liquid-vapor phase balance for hydrocarbon motor fuels of different fractional compositions, the density, enthalpy and entropy along the saturation line were determined (see Table 2).
The study analyzed the state of the global problem of the fuel and energy crisis and the pollution of environment by products of combustion of hydrocarbon fuels of industrial and transport PP equipped with RICE.
So, to increase the efficiency of using AMF, as one of the aspects of solving the problem, an original method and results of calculating the thermophysical properties of a wide class of AMF (hydrogen, natural gas, biogas, mine gas, coke, blast furnace and synthesis gas, etc.) are proposed. The paper describes the developed mathematical model for determining parameters of phase equilibrium and thermophysical properties of dense molecular systems (dense gases and liquids). Calculation procedures are based on the thermodynamic theory of disturbances without the involvement of empirical parameters. Features of the method are: limitation of initial information, high accuracy, the possibility of application in any practically important ranges of states. Calculation errors are at the level of traditional experimental errors.

Fig. 1. Diagram of phases equilibrium of liquid-vapor mixtures of methane-ethane at the indicated temperatures

Fig. 1. Diagram of phases equilibrium of liquid-vapor mixtures of methane-ethane at the indicated temperatures

Table 1. Comparison of the experimental and calculated value of the molar volume of a hydrocarbon mixture

Composition of the mixture
Mole fractions of components, [%]
T, [K]
P, [MPa]
Vexp, [m³/kmol]
Calculation according
to TMT

Vcalc,
[m³/kmol]
Error, [%]

CH₄=72.27; C₂H₆=4.551; C₃H₈=2.474;
n–C₅H₁₂=5.205; C₇H₁₆=3.65; C₁₀H₂₂=2.814;
N₂=3.02; CO₂=3.015; H₂S=3.001
338.71
22.62
0.09469
0.096
1.38

CH₄=77.43; C₂H₆=5.74; C₃H₈=2.99;
n–C₅H₁₂=4.66; C₇H₁₆=3.59; C₁₀H₂₂=2.63;
H₂S=2.96
338.71
21.75
0.1003
0.1004
0.09

CH₄=80.97; C₂H₆=5.66; C₃H₈=3.06
n–C₅H₁₂=4.57; C₇H₁₆=3.3; C₁₀H₂₂=2.44
366.45
21.63
0.1134
0.1134
0.00

Average error δ = ∑|δ / N|,%
0.49

Table 2. Thermodynamic properties of AMF mixtures in equilibrium with the vapor phase

Composition of the mixture.
Mole fractions of components, [%]
T, [K]
Dm, [kg/m³]
(mixture density)
-Hm, [kJ/kg]
(mixture enthalpy)
Sm, [kJ/(kg K)]
(mixture entropy)

CH₄
105
431.37
308.60
4.729

112
422.07
285.46
4.942

120
410.27
257.62
5.181

CH₄=99.5, C₂H₆=3, N₂=1, CO₂=0.5
105
448.18
310.16
4.688

112
438.71
288.05
4.891

120
426.86
261.37
5.120

CH₄=99.5, C₂H₆=3, C₃H₈=0.5, N₂=1
105
446.35
311.86
4.695

112
436.97
289.71
4.898

120
425.22
263.01
5.127

CH₄=95, C₂H₆=3, C₃H₈=0.5, N₂=1,
CO₂=0.5
105
450.78
311.04
4.675

112
441.32
289.11
4.876

120
429.50
262.66
5.103

CH₄=94, C₂H₆=3, C₃H₈=0.5, N₂=2,
CO₂=0.5
105
453.80
306.18
4.676

112
444.19
284.27
4.877

120
432.19
257.91
5.104

Conclusions

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Pollution of natural resources by carcinogenic substances, especially the atmosphere of large cities, is a global ecological problem of the second half of the XX-20 of the XXI century. It is believed that of carcinogenic hydrocarbons contained in environment are related to energy, industry, transport, etc. At the same time, the biggest source of pollution of the atmosphere of cities with carcinogenic and mutagenic ingredients is motor vehicles with RICE.
Currently, the man-made load on the environment (the level of toxic substances in hydrocarbon fuel combustion products) in the cities of Ukraine exceeds the corresponding indicators of developed countries by times. Since thermal RICE will remain the main types of car and PP in the near future, this leads to the need to find new solutions to the fuel-environmental problem of motor vehicles. One of these solutions is the transition to new, more efficient fuels.
At the same time, a set of scientific and technical measures aimed at reducing the man-made load on the environment includes the creation of ecological transport RICE, i.e., improving the environmental indicators of RICE, reducing the toxicity of their EG, improving the organization of working processes, researching and improving the physical properties of AMF. This paper proposes methods for calculating AMF parameters, which are used in mathematical modeling of the working processes of RICE with a low level of harmful substances in EG.
The possibilities of the TMT method for the study of phase equilibrium and thermophysical properties, implemented in the form of computer programs, demonstrate the results for binary and multicomponent mixtures (natural gas, gas condensate, biogas, mine gas, etc.). The average error in the description of the AMF density is, like that of the pure components, about . Similar results were obtained for a set of basic thermodynamic characteristics (enthalpy, entropy, heat capacity, etc.).
Thus, in general, the description of the properties of AMF can be successfully carried out within the framework of the proposed method. In the entire set of properties, this method has significant advantages over existing model and empirical schemes. Including, in particular, the minimum number of initial data required for calculations; lack of fitted parameters and empirical correlations; adequacy of the statistical-mechanical model, which is the basis of the method, and thus reliable determination of thermodynamic features of systems; applicability to a large class of substances and their mixtures; ability to work in a wide range of conditions; calculation errors at the level of experimental errors.
The developed method of prompt and reliable determination of the thermodynamic properties of multicomponent mixtures allows to exclude the implement of expensive and lengthy experimental studies, which gives a significant economic effect.
The scientific novelty of the results obtained in the research lies in the fact that the mathematical apparatus for determining the thermophysical properties of traditional and alternative types of motor fuel in both liquid and gaseous state, as well as mixtures of different types of such fuel, based on improved thermodynamic theory of perturbations, in terms of adaptation to computer calculation and reduction of calculation time and minimization of the error in determining the main thermodynamic parameters of motor fuels in comparison with reference and experimental data.
The practical significance of the results obtained in the study is that the improved mathematical apparatus for calculating the basic thermodynamic parameters of motor fuels is suitable for use for the entire range of types of traditional, alternative and mixed fuels in both liquid and gaseous states.

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O. Kondratenko, V. Koloskov, S. Kovalenko, Y. Derkach, O. Strokov, Criteria based assessment of efficiency of conversion of reciprocating ICE of hybrid vehicle on consumption of biofuels, 2020 IEEE KhPI Week on Advanced Technology, KhPI Week 2020 (05-10 October 2020, Kharkiv, Ukraine), Conference Proceedings, (2020) 177-182.

B. Pospelov, E. Rybka, R. Meleshchenko, P. Borodych, S. Gornostal, Development of the method for rapid detection of hazardous atmospheric pollution of cities with the help of recurrence measures. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise Technologies, 110 (97) (2019) 29-35.

V. Sadkovyi, B. Pospelov, V. Andronov, E. Rybka, O. Krainiukov, A. Rud, K. Karpets, Yu Bezuhla, Construction of a method for detecting arbitrary hazard pollutants in the atmospheric air based on the structural function of the current pollutant concentrations. Eastern-European Journal of Enterprise, 6/10 (108) (2020) 14-22.

P. Kanilo, K. Kostenko, Analysis of the efficiency of using alternative fuels in vehicles, Problems of mechanical engineering, 141 (2011) 69-73.

A. Lievtierov, V. Marinin, K. Umerenkova, Estimated assessment of the thermophysical properties of biogas used as a fuel for transport, Industrial heat engineering, 321 (2010) 35-41.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 61-73

doi: 10.4028/p-45j91B

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-05-03

Revised:
2023-06-07

Accepted:
2023-06-07

Online:
2023-10-13

Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

Avadhoot Rajurkar , Kunal Dangra , Aryan Deshpande , Madhav Gosavi , Tejas Phadtare , Gajanan Gambhire

Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Upper Indira Nagar, Bibwewadi, Pune - 411037. INDIA

avadhoot.rajurkar@vit.edu, kunal.dangra20@vit.edu, aryan.deshpande20@vit.edu, madhav.gosavi20@vit.edu, tejas.phadtare20@vit.edu, gajanan.gambhire@vit.edu

Keywords: Robot chassis, static structural, thermal, CAD/CAE, structural steel, aluminium alloy

Abstract

This work presents a comparative finite element analysis of a 3-wheeler novel robot chassis used for uneven terrain robot applications. The chassis was modeled using SolidWorks and further analyzed in Ansys for its total deformation, equivalent stress, equivalent elastic strain and thermal strain. Two materials were taken into consideration for comparative analysis: Aluminium alloy and Structural steel. A load (force) of 500 N was distributed on the chassis uniformly and the acceleration of was given. Thermal conditions were added by raising the temperature from to in 1 sec . The analysis performed was majorly divided into three parts: a) Only considering force, b) Considering force as well as acceleration, c) Considering force, acceleration and thermal conditions. Total deformation in Aluminium alloy was observed 1.51 to 2.79 times that of structural steel in all the cases. Both metals exhibited almost identical equivalent stress in absence of thermal effect and structural steel exhibit 1.5 times that of Aluminium alloy at elevated temperature. Aluminium alloy possess relatively more (1.86-2.63 times) equivalent elastic strain compared to structural steel. Although, distribution of thermal strain remained constant throughout the chassis for both the materials, its magnitude was 1.91 times high in Aluminium alloy. This type of analysis helps in evaluating the current design and decide whether it will sustain the required load and acceleration under given thermal conditions.

1. Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

Automation is going to be the future of many fields like automobiles, farming, logistics, manufacturing sector, etc. and one of these fields is 'Robotics'. It is a very vast and fast-growing field. One of the major areas is of movable robots like vehicles with 3-4 wheels which are very much like our cars and 3-wheelers. A lot has changed in contemporary chassis design. When the automotive industry first started, the body panels and chassis frames were both composed of wood. Since 1900, chassis have been made of steel and aluminium sheets, giving designers more latitude to build shapes. It is crucial that the chassis design is solid, dependable, and long-lasting. The engineering sector possesses the expertise necessary to optimize the chassis' weight and size today. Engineers model the design to produce a prototype using industry-standard methods like Computer Aided Engineering (CAE). With the aid of simulation methods like FE modelling, the impacts of chassis input conditions can be easily calculated with minimal experimental expense. The primary goal is to ascertain the static loads as indicated by pay load and vehicle weight acting as response forces under the static load condition that was used.
CAE tools are traditionally associated with advanced research & development services related to a specialist skill in physical modelling. CAE gives analytical predictions to support automotive product designs, showing which method achieves the best performance.
Chassis serves as the structural support of a vehicle that is mounted with the suspension, steering, and drive train parts like the engine, transmission, and final drive. The suspension components would need to be supported by a sturdy and stiff chassis. [1] Chassis is typically defined in dictionaries as the framework on which the body or functional components of a car, radio, or television are
constructed. Today, the frame, unit body, and space frame construction fundamental designs are all still in use. Steel beams in the shape of channels are typically used in the frame construction and are joined by welding. All of the running gear positioned on the vehicle's frame (or chassis), as well as the engine, transmission, rear axle assembly (if rear wheel drive), and all suspension parts, are supported by the chassis. When viewed from the top, the frame resembled a ladder. The perimeter frame is made up of frame members that are riveted or welded around the border of the body [1]. A few literatures have been looked at in the current investigation. It has been determined, after carefully examining the results of the many research investigations conducted so far, that there is room for improvement in a variety of variables, including weight, stress, strain and deformation, etc. The chassis frame's cross-section and material could be altered to achieve this [2].
Integrated CAD/CAM/CAE/PLM technologies have made it possible for the industry to realize product creation, manufacturing, use, and servicing in digital settings. The main concept is to combine robotics software, mechanical CAD, and CAE capabilities into a single platform to streamline the development process with an intuitive user interface. A variety of 3D models of the robotized production work cell, including the robot and the environment in which it operates, are included on the integrated platform [3]. The study outlines an interdisciplinary strategy that combines physical and virtual (3D) modelling techniques and tools in an industrial design and high industrial undergraduate engineering school research setting. The physical modelling for many types of robotic systems, including mobile robots, manipulators, etc., was intimately related to the CAD/CAE processes. As a result, the robot's design issues are resolved in both physical and virtual settings [3]. Finite Element Method helps in understanding:

The physical behavior under varied applied loads is better understood with the aid of the finite element method.

To determine the performance and viability of the design.

For the safety margin to be calculated.

To determine the design's potential weaknesses.

To determine the ideal layout [4]

Autonomous mobile robotic systems have been commonly seen in two types as legged and wheeled mobile robot. Both have advantages and disadvantages. Wheeled mobile robots have more simple mechanism, lower weight, easier to control and faster than legged ones. Wheeled mobile robots can be seen with different wheel types and drive mechanisms in academic and commercial implementations. The omnidirectional mobility, which is one of the drive mechanisms for mobile robots, is defined as having motion capability to move instantly in all directions from any configuration. Omnidirectional vehicles are capable to translate in x and y directions and rotate about its gravity centre [5].
Using CAD (Computer Aided Design) software, the mobile transportation robot was created as two modules: a mechanical wheeled locomotion module and a robotic arm module. The static structural and rigid body dynamics tools of the CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) software were used to conduct the analyses. The robot's body was subjected to the added load and the robot's weight during the structural study. In the dynamic analysis, the CAE software was used to model the operational environment and conditions [6]. The picking robot arm's modal analysis was performed using ANSYS Workbench, and the modal characteristics in various positions were obtained. We then discovered that the deformations of the arm frame's end bearing, the sub-rod, and a triangular block were larger, resulting in a smaller stiffness, which could be decreased by increasing the parts' thickness or switching out good materials [7]. Ze et al. designed frame of wall climbing robot for wall inspection of thermal power plants. The gap adsorption permanent magnet model is constructed, and its parametric simulation analysis is carried out using the Ansoft Maxwell module [7].
Overall stiffness of the car frame was determined by CAE simulations [2]. The comfort of the passengers' ride is impacted by the rigidity of the car frame, which changes with boundary conditions. In the current study, the car chassis is modelled using finite elements (FEM), and optimization is used to identify design improvements, such as bulkheads and reinforcements, on the chassis based on the
input of the road load situation. Pre-processing is used to complete the FEM modelling. To verify the modal frequency and model shape of the chassis, Nastran is employed as a solver. Virtual testing is possible. to assess the findings and confirm the frame's design adjustment. [8]
A robot manipulator CAD/CAE/CAM integrated system was created. The robot position analysis was calculated using Matlab using the D-H (Denavit-Hartenberg) coordinate transformation method in accordance with the transformation matrices. Mastercam was used to implement the cutting simulation, Pro/Mechanica was used to simulate the dynamic simulation, and a CNC milling machine was utilised to create the prototype. Pro/ENGINEER (Pro/E) was used to build the robot manipulator parametric solid models. Finally, a robot manipulator CAD/CAE/CAM integrated system was created [8, 16]. Due to the unfavourable conditions of the majority of our loads and engine operations, the automobile is subject to some loads (vibration/excitation) that, if not considered during the design stage, might harm the vehicle. Unbalance, misalignment, looseness, shaft catenary / bearing loading, resonance, rubbing, shaft bow, erroneous operating parameters, faulty bearing / bearing assembly, vibration transmission from another source, gear inaccuracies, and casing distortion are other factors that can cause vibration. Jiang et al. performed structural design and simulation of quadrupled tree climbing robot. A kinematic model was established using D-H method. Stress analysis of gripper mechanism was performed to assess stresses [9].
In mechanical dynamic systems, oscillations are known as vibrations. The term "vibration" in mechanical engineering is frequently used to refer to systems that can oscillate freely without applied forces, even though any system can oscillate when it is compelled to do so externally. In engineered systems, these vibrations can occasionally result in minor or major performance or safety issues. Using computer-aided engineering (CAE) has proved crucial for creating new automotive products. Engineering software is used in the modern automobile industry to analyse the structural, material, and crashworthiness of vehicles before they are manufactured in order to reduce manufacturing costs and material waste. In some cases, it is also used to improve an already-existing product or technology [10, 12, 15]. The types of optimisation processes include the following: Optimisation techniques include topology, topography, size/gauge, shape, and free-shape optimisation [4, 13, 14].
A Formula SAE vehicle's suspension and chassis are crucial to its structural performance. The analysis and improvement of the FSAE vehicle structure's properties, as well as the construction of the structure, are the main topics of this paper's CAE modelling and simulation study. This was done for the 2014 Formula SAE-compliant current vehicle as part of the Thapar University (TU) Formula student squad, squad Fateh [11]. To gain knowledge about the behavior of the assembly under various loading circumstances, static structural analysis is carried out. It helps the engineers identify areas where high stress is likely to occur and cause deformation, giving them the chance to adjust the design accordingly. To experience the fewest deformations during loading, a chassis must have strong structural rigidity. This characteristic guarantees that the chassis is robust for these systems to function consistently as a structure that houses numerous vehicle systems.

2. Methodology & Materials

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

2.1 Work and Work Material

Static Structural Analysis of three -wheeler robot chassis which includes total deformation, von mises stress, von mises strain, thermal strain, etc has been carried out. Analysis has been performed using two different materials for chassis: Aluminium 11loy and Structural steel.

2.2 Software Used

For CAD modelling of three-wheeler robot chassis Solidworks 2018 whereas for CAE Analysis of three-wheeler robot chassis Ansys R1 were used.

2.3 Methodology

Conventional modeling and analysis procedure was adopted for the simulation. Based on input load and demission requirements, a drawing of three-wheeler robot chassis along with its dimensions was
prepared. Further, CAD model of the chassis was prepared in solidworks according to the dimensions. Weldments were used for the body of the chassis.
Thereafter, the model was imported into Ansys Workbench. Engineering data which includes the materials for chassis was assigned. Two materials from the existing material library Aluminium alloy and Structural steel were used considering weight and load criteria.

Fig. 1. (a) Chassis Drawing, (b) application of forces, acceleration and fixed support on the chassis

Fig. 1. (a) Chassis Drawing, (b) application of forces, acceleration and fixed support on the chassis

2D drawing of the chassis alongwith its 3D representation has been shown in Fig 1(a)-(b). Specification of the materials used for simulation are tabulated in Table 1 and 2.

Table 1. Aluminum Alloy Specification used in Ansys

Property | Value | Property | Value
Young's Modulus | 71000 MPa | Compressive Ultimate Strength | 0 MPa
Poisson's Ratio | 0.33 | Compressive Yield Strength | 280 MPa
Bulk Modulus | 69608 MPa | Tensile Ultimate Strength | 310 MPa
Shear Modulus | 26692 MPa | Tensile Yield Strength | 280 MPa
Isotropic Secant Coefficient of Thermal Expansion | 2.3 e⁻⁰⁵ /°C |  |

Table 2. Structural Steel Specification used in Ansys

Property | Value | Property | Value
Young's Modulus | 200000 MPa | Compressive Ultimate Strength | 0 MPa
Poisson's Ratio | 0.3 | Compressive Yield Strength | 250 MPa
Bulk Modulus | 166700 MPa | Tensile Ultimate Strength | 460 MPa
Shear Modulus | 76923 MPa | Tensile Yield Strength | 250 MPa
Isotropic Secant Coefficient of Thermal Expansion | 1.2 e⁻⁰⁵ /°C |  |

3. Results & Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

3.1 Behavior of chassis under applied load only

Under load only condition with three-wheel support, maximum deformation was observed at the center of the chassis. This is obvious due to lack of support the center. Aluminium alloy shows more total deformation as compared to structural steel as its ultimate tensile strength is less than structural steel (Fig 2 & Fig 5). Equivalent stress is almost similar for both the materials, with structural steel having slightly higher value (Fig 3 & Fig 6). The equivalent elastic strain is more in Aluminium alloy as compared to structural steel which is due to more deformation (Fig 4 and Fig 7). Maximum and average values of deformations, equivalent stresses and strains for Aluminium alloy are shown in Table 3 and for structural steel in Table 4.

Fig. 2. Total deformation on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration aspects

Fig. 2. Total deformation on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration aspects

Fig. 3. Equivalent Stresses on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration condition

Fig. 3. Equivalent Stresses on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration condition

Fig. 4. Equivalent Elastic Strain on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 4. Equivalent Elastic Strain on aluminum alloy chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Table 3. Aluminum Alloy without thermal and acceleration condition

| Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.20591 | 0.077836
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 81.758 | 2.8966
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.001154 | 0.0005807

Fig. 5. Total deformation on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 5. Total deformation on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 6. Equivalent stresses on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 6. Equivalent stresses on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 7. Equivalent elastic strain on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Fig. 7. Equivalent elastic strain on structural steel chassis without thermal and acceleration conditions

Table 4. Structural Steel without Thermal and Acceleration conditions

Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.07368 | 0.027879
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 87.59 | 2.9261
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.000438 | 0.000209

3.2 Behavior of chassis under applied load and acceleration

Total deformation of structural steel chassis was found to be less compared to aluminium alloy chassis as its ultimate tensile strength is higher (Fig. 8 and Fig. 11). The equivalent stress is slightly high in the case of structural steel ( 89 MPa ) as compared to Aluminium alloy ( 81 MPa ) (Fig 9. and Fig. 12). The equivalent elastic strain is less for structural steel as compared to Aluminium alloy (Fig. 10 and Fig. 13). Application of acceleration has had no effect on total deformation, equivalent stress, and equivalent elastic strain. Maximum and average values of deformations, equivalent stresses and strains for structural steel are shown in Table 5 and for Aluminium alloy in Table 6.

Fig. 8. Total deformation of Structural Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 8. Total deformation of Structural Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 9. Equivalent stress of Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 9. Equivalent stress of Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 10. Equivalent elastic strain of Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 10. Equivalent elastic strain of Steel chassis without thermal conditions

Table 5. Structural Steel with application of acceleration

| Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.07368 | 0.027879
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 87.59 | 2.9261
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.000438 | 0.000209

Fig. 11. Total deformation of Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 11. Total deformation of Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 12. Equivalent Stress acting on Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 12. Equivalent Stress acting on Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 13. Equivalent strain experienced by Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Fig. 13. Equivalent strain experienced by Aluminium alloy chassis without thermal conditions

Table 6. Aluminium Alloy with application of acceleration condition

Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.20591 | 0.077836
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 81.758 | 2.8966
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.001154 | 0.0005807

3.3 Behavior of chassis under load, acceleration, and temperature condition

In the case of aluminium alloy as chassis material when load, acceleration and temperature is raised to , the total deformation is more as compared to structural steel since its ultimate tensile strength is less and thermal coefficient is more as compared to structural steel (Fig. 14 & Fig. 18). The total deformation is maximum near the center of the chassis as the fixed supports in the form of wheels would be present at the edges. Least deformation is seen near the fixed supports.

The equivalent stress in this case is less in the case of aluminium alloy as compared to structural steel, but equivalent elastic strain is more in aluminium alloy because the structural steel has undergone less deformation (Fig. 15 & Fig. 19). Thermal strain is more in the aluminium alloy as its isotropic secant coefficient of thermal expansion is higher than structural steel (Fig. 17 & Fig. 21). Maximum and average values of deformations, equivalent stresses and strains for Aluminium alloy are shown in Table 7 and for structural steel in Table 8.

Fig.14. Total Deformation on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig.14. Total Deformation on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig.15. Equivalent stresses on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig.15. Equivalent stresses on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig. 16. Equivalent strain on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig. 16. Equivalent strain on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig. 17. Thermal strain on aluminium alloy chassis

Fig. 17. Thermal strain on aluminium alloy chassis

Table 7. Aluminium Alloy with application of thermal and acceleration condition

Property Measured | Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.16231 | 0.089
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 852.82 | 34.639
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.012101 | 0.00062308
Thermal Strain | 0.000644 | 0.000644

Fig. 18. Total deformation on structural steel chassis

Fig. 18. Total deformation on structural steel chassis

Fig. 19. Equivalent stresses on the structural steel chassis

Fig. 19. Equivalent stresses on the structural steel chassis

Fig. 20. Equivalent elastic strain on the structural steel chassis

Fig. 20. Equivalent elastic strain on the structural steel chassis

Fig. 21. Thermal strain on the structural steel chassis

Fig. 21. Thermal strain on the structural steel chassis

Table 8. Structural Steel with application of thermal and acceleration condition

| Maximum Value | Average Value
Total Deformation (mm) | 0.10746 | 0.0589
Equivalent Stress (MPa) | 1284.9 | 50.65
Equivalent Elastic Strain | 0.006472 | 0.00032561
Thermal Strain | 0.000336 | 0.000336

4. Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

A comparative static structural analysis of a novel robot chassis for structural steel and Aluminium alloy materials has been carried out for a novel robot chassis. The conclusions of the simulation are highlighted as follows:

Total deformation in Aluminum alloy model is more than structural steel model for all the cases. Maximum total deformation in Aluminium alloy when only load is applied is 2.7946 times ( ) as compared to structural steel. Total deformation increases with the application of thermal condition but remains constant even when acceleration condition is applied. Under temperature, Aluminium alloy deforms 1.5104 times ( ) more compared to structural steel.

Distribution of equivalent stress is almost same for both materials in absence of thermal conditions. Whereas, equivalent stress in structural steel shows 1.5066 times ( ) rise as compared to aluminum alloy at .

Equivalent elastic strain is more in Aluminum alloy as compared to structural steel in all the cases. When only load is applied, Aluminium alloy shows 2.6347 times ( ) more equivalent elastic strain as compared to structural steel. Equivalent elastic strain increases by 1.8697 times (186.97%) for Aluminium alloy as compared to structural steel when thermal condition is applied.

Thermal strain distributions are constant throughout the chassis for both the materials. Whereas, it is 1.9166 times ( ) more in magnitude for aluminum alloy model compared to its counterpart.
Thus, while working in higher temperature ranges of around , structural steel should be preferred as chassis material as it undergoes lesser total deformation and also the equivalent stress and strain developed are less as compared to Aluminium alloy. When working in normal room temperature range, despite undergoing more total deformation, Aluminium alloy should be preferred as chassis material as there is no significant change in equivalent stress and strain. Moreover, Aluminium alloy is lighter in weight and economically cheaper.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.61.pdf

Muthiah, G. Karthick, M. Kalimuthu, K. Muthusamy, C. Kanagaraj, Modal Analysis of Chassis Using CAE Prediction, International Journal of Science Technology & Engineering. 7(11) (2021) 40-43. https://ijste.org/Article.php?manuscript=IJSTEV7I11013

Vishwakarma, A. Prajapati, S. Mahadeokar, A. Vishwakarma, Design & Analysis of Truck Chassis Frame using CAE Tools, International Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science. 3(9) (2021) 756-761. /fin_irjmets1631798148.pdf

M.V. Chugunov, I.N. Polunina, A.G. Divin, et al. Integrated Mobile Robotic Platform Model, Engineering Technologies and Systems. 31(4) (2021) 609-627. doi:

S. Jawadekar, P. Balgaonkar, CAE simulations for an Optimal & Cost-effective Automotive Chassis Design,

N. Demir, H.S. Sucuoglu, I. Bogrekci, P. Demircioglu, Structural & Dynamic Analyses and Simulation of Mobile Transportation Robot, Int. J. of 3D Printing Tech. Dig. Ind., 5(3) (2021) 587-595. doi: 10.46519/ij3dptdi. 949803

Zhou Jian, Yang ZhiMin, Chen Song Lin, Analysis of the harvesting robot arm modal based on CAE, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research. 6(11) (2014) 669-673.

J. Ze, C. Bo, Z. Ju, Y. Li, Y. Xu, Y. Zhao, Design and analysis of a wall-climbing robot for water wall inspection of thermal power plants, Journal of Field Robotics, (2023), 10.1002/rob. 22171

H.S. Lee, S.L. Chang, Development of a CAD/CAE/CAM system for a robot manipulator, Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 140 (2003) 100-104. 10.1016/S0924-0136(03)00695-2

H. Jiang, B. Yu, X. Qi, C. Pan and J. Yang, Structural Design and Simulation Analysis of Quadruped Tree Climbing Robot, Journal of Physics: Conference Series, (2023) 2437-012116. DOI: 0.1088/1742-6596/2437/1/012116

A.S. Agbadua, C.C. Obinwa, E.A. Agbomabinu, S.O. Sheidu and M.I. Joseph, Verification of Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) in Optimization of Chassis for Tricycle, International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering, 6(3) (2016) 98-102. DOI: 10.6084/M9.FIGSHARE. 3468875

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W. Hai-fei, J. Kun-kun and G. Zi-peng, Random vibration analysis for the chassis frame of hydraulic truck based on ANSYS, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 6(3) (2014) 849-852.

J.J. Gumasing, Overall Improvement for the Design of Motorized Tricycles in the Philippines - An Ergonomic Study, Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Bali, Indonesia. (2014) 1509-1517.

Y.S. Rajput, V. Sharma, S. Sharma & G. Saxena, A Vibration Analysis of Vehicle Frame, International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 3(2) (2013) 348-350.

K.Y. Patil and E.R. Deore, Stress Analysis of Ladder Chassis with Various Cross Sections, International Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 10(4) (2015) 111-116.

This ePub file was created using machine-generated methods and automated software to convert the source text into an ePub format and may contain formatting inconsistencies from the original version. Formatting may vary depending on the device used.

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 75-88

doi: 10.4028/p-rDrv9A

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-08-10

Revised:
2023-09-01

Accepted:
2023-09-01

Online:
2023-10-13

Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.75.pdf

Ishant Jain , Sudhakar Reddy

Material & Processing dept., Raychem Innovation Center, RPG (P) Ltd., Gujarat 389950, India

ishantmiet@gmail.com, Sudhakar_reddy@raychemrpg.com

Keywords: Cable gland, Design, TRIZ, Functional Model, Components Trimming, Inventive Solution, Altshuller Matrix

Abstract

This study introduces a novel approach to cable gland design through the utilization of TRIZ tools. The tools applied include Function Analysis, the Contradiction Matrix, Trimming, and the 40 Inventive Principles. Function Analysis was used to dissect the cable gland's primary functions, while the Contradiction Matrix and Trimming aided in identifying and resolving design contradictions [1-4]. Additionally, the Inventive Principles provided a structured framework for generating innovative solutions to reduce component count and simplify installation. By incorporating these TRIZ tools, this research achieved a significant reduction in components while addressing key challenges in cable gland design.

A cable gland serves two primary functions: retaining and sealing cables within an enclosure, while also offering secondary features such as earthing and cable protection. The number of components in a gland type is determined by functional requirements. Given its classification as a low-cost, highvolume product, the competitive edge lies in achieving reduced selling costs and simplified installation. Addressing key challenges, which include a high component count (currently nine) and a cumbersome installation process, forms the core focus of this work. The research outlines the TRIZguided process and methodology employed to devise inventive solutions to these issues, resulting in a component reduction from nine to four. Moreover, the study encompasses the incorporation of various constraints in the development of efficient cable gland designs, yielding several innovative concepts. The paper introduces proposed system designs and architectures, established based on TRIZ-derived inventive principles, paving the way for subsequent system prototype development.

The work underscores the accelerated problem identification and solution generation facilitated by TRIZ tools. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of TRIZ methodologies in accelerating problem-solving and fostering innovative solutions in cable gland design[5-9]. The evolving concept is presently situated within the feasibility and design phase, effectively addressing both primary and secondary challenges through TRIZ methodologies.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.75.pdf

A cable gland, more often known as a cable connector or fitting, is a device designed to attach and secure the end of an electrical cable to the equipment. Technically, they are mechanical cable entry devices. They are used throughout several industries in conjunction with cable and wiring used in electrical instrumentation and automation systems. Cable glands may be used on all types of electrical power, control, instrumentation, data, and telecommunications cables. They are used as a sealing and termination device to ensure that the characteristics of the enclosure which the cable enters can be maintained adequately. Cable glands are made of various plastics, steel, brass, or aluminum. glands intended to resist dripping water or water pressure will include synthetic rubber or other types of elastomer seals. Certain types of cable glands may also serve to prevent entry of flammable gas into equipment enclosures, for electrical equipment in hazardous areas.
Cable gland primarily serves two main functions, cable retention and cable sealing into an enclosure. It also enables earthing and provides cable guarding. The functional requirements dictate the number
of components in a gland type. Being a low cost- high volume product, the competitive advantage lies in lower selling cost serving wider range of cable sizes and Installation ease.

To start with Raychem RPG E1W type cable gland which is generally used for armored cable, also known as armored cable gland, was taken as base model and functional modelling of components were performed in TRIZ and models of solution were proposed.

Functional Modelling

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.75.pdf

The Function Analysis tool is a systematic way of identifying and understanding the functions of a system. It can be used to improve the design of a system by identifying unnecessary or inefficient functions, and by finding new ways to perform the necessary functions [6].

The armoured cable gland consists of nine components such as the cable passes through the first metallic component known as compression ring. The main functionality of the compression ring is holding the cable and acting as a passage/guide toward the metallic box often known as junction box. The compression ring is provided with compression seal (B) which mainly assures, or the primary function is, ingress protection of the cable as it moves inside. Compression seal (B) though made up of rubber has secondary function of holding the cable. A plastic retainer ring is provided in between compression ring and compression seal (B) to avoid any mechanical damage to the latter.

Body armour, being the main component of assembly performs several functions, primarily being holding body armor lock and cable entering inside. Body armor is the junction where the armor of the cable gets separated for the purpose of earthling performed using two components name as cone ring and cone. Body armor house the cone ring and cone and make sure that segregation of armor from the cable happen just after the cone ring. Armor gets attached over the tapered zone of the cone while the core cable passes through it. The cone ring further assures that armor is tightly attached over the cone. Later, for additional protection compression seal ( S ) is provided as secondary component for ingress protection. Body armor lock is provided to house the compression seal (S) primarily and to help the system attached to the metallic box (junction box) using lock nut. The lock nut goes inside the junction box (metallic box) and holds the cable gland system tightly by holding the lock nut through mechanical threads. The complete details of the components are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1 E1W cable gland engineering system and its components

Figure 1. Figure 1 E1W cable gland engineering system and its components

To build up a Function Analysis, Component Analysis was performed over the components and interactive system by segregating them. Table 1 shows the elements of cable gland system segregated into components and super components. Super system components could be objects (not in the meaning of the object of a sentence but as a physical object), fields, systems and resources that are
'close' to the engineering system that should be modeled. Junction box, cable, human and oil/ moisture/ air are those elements in the system that cannot be influenced and therefore marked as super system. The other components of the engineering system as mentioned in Figure 1 are levelled as components.

Table 1 Elements of a functional model

Component | Super component
Lock Nut | Junction box/ Mounting Platform
Body armour lock | Cable
Compression seal(S) | Human
Body armour | Moisture/Oil/Flame
Cone |
Cone Ring
Compression Ring
Compression Seal(B)
Plastic retainer ring

Function models highlighting the functions, their usefulness and performance level are shown in figure 2. For instance, lock nut is a function carrier which restricts the movement of body armour lock is a normal function ranked as auxiliary function (Au). Similarly, an insufficient function is performed by lock nut over the junction box where it holds/pushes it changing the surface area as property. Therefore, it is ranked as an additional function (Ad). A basic function(B), though insufficient, is performed by body armorer lock over the cable by housing it.
It is to be noted that the main function of the engineering system is to hold the cable. The target of the engineering system is cable, hence basic rank is assigned to cable. Basic function(B) is a useful directed toward a target(cable) of the current analyzed engineering system. An additional function (Ad) ac on a component of the supersystem except the target(cable) and an auxiliary function (Au) act on a component of the analyzed engineering system.
Further, if the function has performed exactly as the way, it is designed is designated as normal function as shown in Figure 2. An excessive or insufficient performance is considered as in issue.

Figure 2 Function ranking of lock no and body armour lock

Figure 2. Figure 2 Function ranking of lock no and body armour lock

In this way functional ranking was performed, functional levels were identified as normal, insufficient, excessive, and harmful and functional body diagram was developed as shown in figure 3. It is therefore in the context of the E1W cable gland, the Function Analysis tool is used to identify the following functions:

To hold the cable and protect it from moisture, oil, and flame.
To provide a passage for the cable into the junction box.
To prevent the cable from being pulled out of the gland.
To provide earthing for the cable.

The Function Analysis tool can also be used to find the performance level of each function[7]. For example, the function of holding the cable is performed adequately by the compression ring and compression seal. However, the function of providing grounding is not performed adequately by the cone and cone ring. This is because the cone and cone ring are not able to provide a secure connection between the cable armour and the junction box.

The Function Analysis tool can be used to find potential improvements to the E1W cable gland. For example, one potential improvement would be to redesign the cone and cone ring to provide a more secure connection between the cable armour and the junction box. Another potential improvement would be to add a second compression seal to provide additional protection against moisture and oil.

Figure 3 Functional body diagram of cable gland

Figure 3. Figure 3 Functional body diagram of cable gland

The Function Analysis tool is a powerful tool that can be used to improve the design of a system. By identifying and understanding the functions of a system, and by identifying potential improvements, the Function Analysis tool can help to create a more efficient and effective system.
CECA - Cause and effect chain analysis
Many disadvantages are identified during functional analysis, which are caused by a few underlying key disadvantages. Functional analysis exposes the functional shortcomings of the engineering system, as revealed through the functional body diagram. Conversely, CECA systematically organize these drawbacks, particularly those arising from an excessive number of components that contribute to system complexity, and it also uncovers previously concealed issues, occasionally extending beyond the system's defined boundaries . CECA is used to identify the key disadvantage of the engineering system, accomplished by building cause - effect chain of disadvantages that link the target disadvantage to its fundamental causes. It was done to understand the inter-dependence of its disadvantages of the system.

Figure 4 Cause effect chain analysis of the engineering system

Figure 4. Figure 4 Cause effect chain analysis of the engineering system

With the understanding of CECA, it was identified that root cause of the engineering system was a greater number of components. For instance, two functions are satisfied by 5 components i.e., holding is done by compression ring 1, grip ring, body armor lock components and sealing is done by compression ring 2, mechanical seal, body armor lock and so on. Table 2 highlights the function of engineering subsystems being performed by various components. For example, retention of the cable inside the metallic box (junction box) is performed by lock nut however other components such as cable, junction box and body armor lock can also perform the same function as evident from functional body diagram in figure 3. Components highlighted in red are the super system.

Table 2 Functions performed by various components.

Sealing | Bonding | Earthing(or) Ground | Strain Relief | Insulation | Retention
Compression Seal(BIG) | Cone ring | Earth Tag | Body armour Lock | Shoruds | Lock Nut
Compression Ring | cable | Junction Box | Body Armour | Compression seal(BIG) | Cable
Cable | Junction Box | Body Armour Lock | Compression ring | Compression seal(SMALL) | Body armour Lock
Plasastic retainer ring | Body armour Lock |  | Cable |  | Junction Box
Compression seal(SMALL) | Cone |  |  |  |
Moisture |  |  |  |  |
Cone |  |  |  |  |
Body armour |  |  |  |  |

Trimming

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TRIZ helps to trim away unnecessary components by thinking about how some components of the system may deliver the functions that currently other components deliver. A trimmed system not only costs less, but it also has less scope for uninvited harmful functions to appear and is thus doubly desirable. Components of the engineering system were trimmed, in various steps, when it was observed carefully about how to deliver the functions we want.

Step 1 - Trimming the compression seal (small) and compression seal (big)

Figure 5 FBD for eliminations of compression seals

Figure 5. Figure 5 FBD for eliminations of compression seals

Compression seal (small) and compression seal (big) are functions carriers which perform functions such as compressing the cable, pushing the body amour lock, body armor, compression ring, restricting the cone movement and resisting the moisture flame oil as shown in figure 5 . trimming rule 3 was applied i.e., functions of compression seals can be performed by one new component in the following ways:

Compressing the cable done by compression seal new.

Restricting the cone movement can be done by body armor lock.

Pushing the body armor lock can be done body armour.

Resisting the moisture/flame/oil can be done by new compression seal.

Hence, a new component was introduced as compression seal (new) will replacement of both compression seals. The functional body diagram is shown in figure 6.

Step 2 - Trimming the cone.
Cone as a function carrier of the engineering system performs function of pushing body armor lock, restricts the movement of body armor, provides passage for cable, and holds the cone ring. trimming rule 2 was applied i.e., functions of cone seal can be performed by other components in following ways:

Pushing body armour lock can be done by body armour.

Restricting the movement of body armour can be done by body armour lock.

Providing passage for cable can be done by body armour lock.

Holding the cone ring can be done by body armour.

Hence the cone was trimmed, and functionality was assigned to body armor lock and body armor as shown in figure 7.

Step 3 - Trimming the body armor.
Body armour as function carrier of the engineering system perform function of pushing body armour lock, restricts the movement of compression ring, compresses the cone ring, compresses the compression seal (big) and compresses the cable as shown in figure 7. Under the pretext of trimming rule 2 , functions of body armour can be performed by other components in the following ways:

Push in body armour can be achieved by compression ring.

Restriction in the movement of compression ring can be achieved by body armour lock.

Compressing the cone ring can be done by compression ring.

Compression of the compression seal (big) can be achieved by body armour lock.

Compression of the cable can be achieved by body armour lock.

Hence the body armour was trimmed, and functionality was assigned to body armor lock and compression ring as shown in figure 8.

Figure 7FBD for elimination of body armour

Figure 6. Figure 7FBD for elimination of body armour

Step 4 - Trimming the plastic retainer ring.
The plastic retainer ring as a function carrier of the engineering system performs the function of pushing compression ring and compression Seal (big) as shown in figure 8. Under the pretext of trimming rule 2, functions of plastic retainer can be performed by other components in the following ways:

Pushing compression ring is an excessive function, can be performed compression ring itself.

Pushing compression seal (big) can be performed by compression ring.

It is therefore plastic retainer ring was trimmed and functionality was assigned to compression ring and compression seal as shown in figure 9.

Figure 8 FBD for elimination of plastic retainer ring

Figure 7. Figure 8 FBD for elimination of plastic retainer ring

Step 5 - Trimming the cone ring.

Figure 9 FBD for elimination of cone ring

Figure 8. Figure 9 FBD for elimination of cone ring

The only function of the cone ring as a function carrier was to clamp the cable with armour. With trimming rule 2 , cone ring was trimmed, and the functionality was assigned to body armour lock.

Final trimmed model

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In the final trimmed model of the engineering system, as shown in figure 10, we had new compression ring and new (improvised) compression seal introduced with additional functionality of body armour and plastic retainer ring and new body armour lock introduced with functionality of cone, cone ring and body armour lock removed during the trimming process.

Figure 10 Final trimmed model of engineering system

Figure 9. Figure 10 Final trimmed model of engineering system

Contradictions and Evolution of Concepts

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According to TRIZ, often the most effective inventive solution to a problem is the one that overcomes some contradictions. A contradiction shows where (in so-called operative zone) and when (in socalled operative time) a conflict happens. Contradiction, in TRIZ, happens when solving one improving parameter or characteristic of a technique negatively affects the same or other characteristics or parameter of the characteristics. An action is simultaneously useful and harmful; the introduction or amplification of useful function or the recession of the harmful effects lead to deterioration of some subsystems or the whole systems [1]. For example, in the current case, retention of cable is the improving parameter which is achieved only when cable is held as shown in figure 11. However, to hold the cable an additional support system is required which will increase the overall cost of the system in terms of components. Hence, the contradiction obtained was maintaining cable retention with no additional support required. Improving and worsening parameters for the contradiction were identified from 40 engineering parameters as mentioned in table 3.

Figure 11 Contradictions for holding and sealing cable with junction box.

Figure 10. Figure 11 Contradictions for holding and sealing cable with junction box.

Table 3 Improving and worsening parameter from 40 engineering parameters

Improving Parameters

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11 - Tension or Pressure
13 - Stability of Object
14 - Strength
27 - Reliability

Worsening Parameters

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26 - Amount of Substance
36 - Complexity of Device

Altshuller matrix was formed between improving and worsening factors to identify the underlying inventive principles as shown in figure 12. Based on the principles obtained, ideas were generated to give a shape to final concept as shown in table 4.

Improving Parameters | Worsening Parameters
11 - Tension or Pressure | 26 - Amount of Substance
13 - Stability of Object | 36 - Complexity of Device
14 - Strength |
27 - Reliability |

Figure 12 Altshuller Matrix for identifying underlying principles.

In a similar event, Ingress protection of cable (by preventing air, water, and dust seepage) is the improving parameter which is achieved only when cable is sealed as shown in figure 13. However, to seal the cable an additional support system is required which will increase the overall cost of the system in terms of components. Hence, the contradiction obtained was sealing cable with no additional support required. Improving and worsening parameters for the contradiction were identified from 40 engineering parameters as mentioned in the table 5.

Table 4 Idea generated against inventive principles.

No | Principle | Idea Generated
1 | Segmentation | Segmenting the body armour lock to provide grip
4 | Asymmetry | making plastic part with asymmetric diameter to compress the cable
6 | Universality | Eliminating Part-Transferring function to others
14 | Spheroid | Attach one String at the end of body armour lock and compression ring
22 | Convert a Harm into Benefit | Water observing mechanical seal instead of resisting-will expand with presence of water
35 | Transformation of physical and chemical action | Using chemical bonding instead of physical

Figure 13 Contradiction of cable sealing with junction box

Figure 11. Figure 13 Contradiction of cable sealing with junction box

The E1W cable gland encounters key contradictions which're as follows.

One contradiction is the requirement to securely hold the cable without requiring support. The existing design of the cable gland utilizes components such, as the compression ring, compression seal and body armour lock to achieve this. However, these components increase the weight and complexity of the design. This can potentially lead to failures.

Another contradiction is the need to effectively seal the cable against moisture, oil and flames without relying on support. The current E1W cable gland design incorporates components like the compression seal, cone ring and cone, for this purpose. Nevertheless, these components add complexity and weight to the design while also increasing the risk of failures.

Table 5 Improving and worsening parameter from 40 engineering parameters as taken from Altshuller Matrix

No | Principle | Idea Generated
1 | Segmentation | Segmenting the body armour lock to provide grip
4 | Asymmetry | making plastic part with asymmetric diameter to compress the cable
6 | Universality | Eliminating Part-Transferring function to others
14 | Spheroid | Attach one String at the end of body armour lock and compression ring
22 | Convert a Harm into Benefit | Water observing mechanical seal instead of resisting-will expand with presence of water
35 | Transformation of physical and chemical action | Using chemical bonding instead of physical

Figure 14 Altshuller Matrix for identifying underlying principles.

Figure 12. Figure 14 Altshuller Matrix for identifying underlying principles.

Altshuller matrix was formed between improving and worsening factor to identify the underlying inventive principles as shown in figure 14. Based on the principles obtained, ideas were generated as workable solutions to give a shape to final concept as shown in table 6.

Use of composite materials. Composite materials can be used to create seals and other components that are both strong and lightweight. This can help to reduce the weight and complexity of the E1W cable gland, while still providing the necessary functions.

Asymmetry. Asymmetric designs can be used to create components that can perform multiple functions. For example, an asymmetric body armour lock could be used to both retain the cable and provide a ground connection.

Transformation of physical and chemical action. Chemical bonding can be used to create seals that are stronger and more durable than traditional seals. This can help to reduce the risk of failure.

Conversion of harmful effects into useful ones. The water absorption of some materials can be used to create seals that expand when they come into contact with water. This can help to create a more effective seal.

Table 6 Idea generated against inventive principles.

No | Principle | Idea Generated
4 | Asymmetry | making rubber part with asymmetric diameter to compress the cable
31 | Use of porous materials | Make small holes in mechanical seal
35 | Transformation of physical and chemical action | use chemical adhesive
40 | Composite materials | Use composite mechanical seal (Steal cord)

Based on the ideas generated with reference to the inventive principle, four ideas were conceptualized and alaysed as mentioned as cases :

With inventive principle 40, using composite material can be an alternate to provide both sealing as well as holding functionalities. A mechanical seal was designed made up of a composite material i.e rubber for sealing and steel cord for mechannical grip that can provide the grip. The schematic of the conceptual form is shown in figure 15. The overall number of components of the engineering system were reduced to four.

Figure 15 Use of principle: Composite material

Figure 13. Figure 15 Use of principle: Composite material

With the combination of principle of composite materials and asymmetry - a new idea was conceptualised wherein the engineering system had final their components that could perform all the desired functionality. Asymmetry principle made body armour lock asymmetrical in a way such that we can put desired pressure over the cable to hold it tightly and can also be used for tagging the armour for earthing. Sealing cap is provided with a composite material as discussed in case 1 which can perform the functionality of ingress protections (sealing) and holding as shown in figure 16.

Figure 16 Use of principle: Composite material & asymmetry

Figure 14. Figure 16 Use of principle: Composite material & asymmetry

The help of principle applying composite material and converting a harm into benefit has helped to improve the characteristic of the seal. Seal absorbs water and gets expanded uniformly therefore creating a harmful functionality. It is for the case, chemistry of polyacrylamide material was modified, and composite material was produced and used to make a seal which can absorb water. The schematic of the concept is shown in figure 17.

Figure 17 Use of principle: Composite material & converting harmful benefits into useful one.

Figure 15. Figure 17 Use of principle: Composite material & converting harmful benefits into useful one.

Acknowledgement

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.75.pdf

We thank our colleagues from TRIZ association of Asia Multiphysics who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research. Patent has been filed for above discussed [4] and analyzed designs of cable glands.

Conclusion

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The paper presented a structured approach to cable gland design that uses a comprehensive set of TRIZ tools. The tools were applied systematically to identify the cable gland's primary functions, resolve design contradictions, and develop innovative solutions .
In current work, the research focused on addressing two critical challenges in cable gland design: the high number of components and the complex installation process. Using TRIZ, the number of components was reduced from nine to four, resulting in a more efficient and cost-effective solution. The versatility of TRIZ methodologies in incorporating various constraints to develop efficient cable gland designs was also demonstrated. The proposed system designs and architectures, which are
based on TRIZ-inspired inventive principles, have help to secure patent for the unique design and laid down the foundation for development of cable gland variants [10].
This work is significant because it accelerates the process of problem identification and solution generation. It also highlights the effectiveness of TRIZ tools in fostering innovative solutions for cable gland design. As the research continues, TRIZ methodologies will be used to address both primary and secondary challenges in other electrical products.
In conclusion, this research not only provides valuable insights into cable gland design, but it also demonstrates the powerful role of TRIZ in enhancing problem-solving and driving innovation in engineering and design disciplines.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.75.pdf

S. D. Savransky, Engineering of Creativity(2000): Introduction to TRIZ Methodology of Inventive Problem Solving, CRC Press.

Ascari, A., Bologna, M., & Turri. Systematic design through the integration of TRIZ and optimization tools. Advances in Engineering Software (2004), 35(1), 3-13.

Zulhasni, A. R., & Nooh, A. B. Innovative Cases of TRIZ Application in the Automotive Industry. Applied Mechanics and Materials (2015), 735, 326-330.

Kim, J., Kim, I., Lee, H., and Park, B, "A Study on the Role of TRIZ in DFSS," SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. (2012), 5(1):22-29.

Gao GH, Wei KC, Yang H, Liu Y. Optimization Design of Automatic Transplanting Machine Based on TRIZ. Advanced Materials Research 2013;712-715:2966-9

R. Stratton and D. Mann, "Systematic innovation and the underlying principles behind TRIZ and TOC," J. Mater. Process. Technol., vol. 139, no. 1-3,120-126, Aug. 2003.

D. Cavallucci and R. D. Weill, "Integrating Altshuller's development laws for technical systems into the design process," CIRP Ann. Technol., vol. 50, no. 1, 15-120, 2001

Christian Spreafico, "Can TRIZ (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving) strategies improve material substitution in eco-design?",Sustainable Production & Consumption Vol 30, Mar 2022, 889-915

José C, Kazuo H, Monica C, Roberto C, Jorge Inche e, Norma M, "A model for renewable energy-based product innovation based on TRIZ methodology, exergy analysis and knowledge management: Case study", Energy Reports Vol 8, Nov 2022, 1107-1114

Jain, I. (2018). An armored cable gland. Patent Application IN201821013762.

This ePub file was created using machine-generated methods and automated software to convert the source text into an ePub format and may contain formatting inconsistencies from the original version. Formatting may vary depending on the device used.

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 89-94

doi: 10.4028/p-UQ3Dz7

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2022-12-28

Revised:
2023-02-20

Accepted:
2023-03-08

Online:
2023-10-13

The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

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Yao-Tsung Lin , Shyh-Shin Hwang and Jun-An Zhu

Graduate Institute of Precision Manufacturing, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, No.57, Sec. 2, Zhongshan Rd., Taiping Dist., Taichung 41170, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chien-hsin University of Science and Technology, Zhongli Dist., Taoyuan County 320312, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

train@ncut.edu.tw, stanhwang@uch.edu.tw, s19991213x202233472d@gmail.com

Keywords: Front Opening Unified Pod, wafer, particle, AMC, diffuser tubes.

Abstract

The front opening unified pod (FOUP) is a packing box for contamination control for semiconductor wafer transport. As the wafer fabrication process developes towards nano or atom level, the semiconductor wafer storage device should advance from the particle prevention function into the airborne molecular contamination (AMC) removal function. Therefore, it is necessary to design/redesign a function for removing AMC or moisture inside the FOUP. This study used the design of leading diffuser tubes in the FOUP and pores in the surfaces of diffuser tubes to generate gas diffusion. This is to achieve a uniform distribution of the wafer surface velocity field and a uniform dehumidification function of the wafer surface. Based on the analysis results, when circular diffuser tubes are introduced in the FOUP and the intake air flow was set at , the interlayer wafer surface in the FOUP could achieve uniform distribution of velocity field. As a result, the humidity difference among various zones of wafer surface could be reduced, and the yield and quality of the wafer cutting process could be controlled.

Introduction

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The semiconductor industry is confronted with new challenges as the wafer etching process develops towards micro-miniaturization. It has been reduced from the level to the current nm level and with a further micro-miniaturization to the au level in the future. Therefore, the semiconductor clean-room contamination control design should evolve from particles into the airborne molecular contamination control function. Multiple sources can contaminate the semiconductor during manufacturing/packing process. These sources include chemical solvent volatilization, etching sour gas, and metal or plastic precipitates [1]. Chemical contaminants which can deposit or adhere onto wafer surfaces to form a thin layer are called airborne molecular contamination (AMC). According to the definition of SEMI F21-1102, the clean-room AMC is divided into four major items: MA, MB, MC, MD, and MM. MA, MB, MC, and MM represent acids, bases, condensable organic compounds, and metals, respectively. There are extensive sources of AMC. Therefore, effectively controlling and removing the AMC contaminants is the key to the yield control of semiconductor wafer processes [2].

In the semiconductor manufacturing/packing process, the front opening unified pod (FOUP) is a container for protecting, transporting, and storing wafers. It is a transport unit preventing wafers from long-term exposure to the clean-room environment during manufacturing. AMCs are likely to combine with the oxygen and water vapor in the air and adhere to wafer surfaces, influencing the yield [3-6]. Khoo et al. indicated that the water vapor content in FOUP is an index for influences on the wafer process yield control. Nitrogen purging is considered an effective way to remove the residual water vapor from the wafer surface as it can reduce oxidation of the wafer surface. However, the continuous purging efficiency and the cost of nitrogen cannot meet the industrial production requirements [7]. Therefore, clean dry air (CDA) is used for wafer surface water vapor purging and moisture control. Additionally, to reduce the oxide content in the FOUP, air inlet and an outlet are designed at the front and the back end of the bottom of conventional FOUP. The purpose is to remove the oxygen and water from the FOUP and to avoid the oxidation of the wafer surface, thereby
influencing the wafer circuit properties [7,8]. However, a research analysis revealed that arranging 25 pcs of wafers from bottom to top, it was difficult to remove moisture from the wafer surface of No. 13 situated in the middle. Hu et al. designed a curtain structure to control the uniformity of gas purging inside the FOUP [9]. However, this structural design could not uniformly remove the moisture from the wafer surface on each layer inside the FOUP.

The diffuser tube design mode and CAE analytical software helped analyze and discuss the method of homogenizing the gas flow rate on the wafer surface of various layers inside the FOUP by setting the high-pressure air flow inputted in diffuser tubes [10]. This study aims to uniformly control ambient humidity of various zones of the wafer surface and to control the wafer process yield.

Description of Research Procedure and Method

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Based on the gas diffusion theory, this study designed a front-opening unified pod with gas diffusion and gas streaming functions. It also discussed methods for improving the function of homogenizing the moisture of the wafer surface on various layers inside the FOUP during the wafer transport and storage processes.

Theory

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The gas diffusion theory is based on Fick's Law principle. In the steady state diffusion process of an ideal gas, the gas flow through the unit cross-sectional area normal to the diffusion direction in unit time is proportional to the concentration gradient at the section. The larger the gas concentration gradient the higher the gas diffusion flux.

The gas diffusion flux is represented by J . The unit is , i.e., the mass per unit area of gas in unit time.

D denotes the gas diffusion coefficient( ).
C is the volume concentration of gas diffusion(atomicity/ or ).
is the concentration gradient " - " means the diffusion direction is opposite to the concentration gradient.
Additionally, according to the Van Der Waals equation, osmotic pressure
denotes the gas permeation pressure.
C denotes the permeating gas concentration.
R denotes the gas constant.
T is the absolute temperature.
According to the theoretical basis, this study introduced the diffuser tube design in front opening unified pods. A high-pressure dry air was continuously pumped into diffuser tubes, and the dry air permeated out of the micron-sized holes in the diffuser tube surfaces while purging the fine dust particles or AMC off the wafer surface inside the FOUP. This process can dehumidify the wafer surface [11]. Diffuser tubes are hollow circular tubes, and the gas pressure difference is diffused by foaming and perforating the polymer surface. Solidworks Flow Simulation software was employed for simulations and analyses.

Analysis Model and Boundary Condition Settings

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Fig. 1(a) shows the flow field analysis model of FOUP without the diffuser tube design. The structure comprises an air inlet, an air outlet, a door, wafers, and a cassette. Fig. 1(b) shows the flow field analysis model of FOUP with the diffuser tube design. The structure comprises an air inlet, an air outlet, a door, wafers, a cassette, and diffuser tubes. Fig. 1(c) shows the velocity measuring points nearby Zones 1-5 of wafer surfaces [10]. Fig. 1(d) shows the serial numbers of wafers inside the FOUP, including No. 1 to No. 13 from bottom to top, totaling 13 pcs . Table 1 shows the boundary condition settings for the FOUP flow field analysis, and the analysis time was 30 seconds.

Fig. 1 Composition of Front Opening Unified Pod (FOUP)

Fig. 1. Composition of Front Opening Unified Pod (FOUP)

Table 1. FOUP flow field analysis boundary condition settings

Item | Unit
CAE soft ware | Solidworks Flow Simulation
Porosity | 0.5
Air inlet | 20 LPM, 100 LPM, 200 LPM, 300 LPM
Total analysis time | 30 seconds. Time-dependent

Results and Discussion

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Differences between FOUP without the diffuser tube design and FOUP with the diffuser tube design

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Fig. 2 shows the velocity field distribution on the surface of No. 1, No. 7, and No. 13 wafers in a FOUP without and with the diffuser tube design. Compared to the color bar and flow field color distribution diagrams of Figs. 2(a1)-(a3) with the gas flow of air-fluid fixed at , the velocity at Points 1-5 on the surface of No. 1 and No. 7 wafers approached . This result shows that there was no apparent gas flow. The gas flow velocity range on the surface of No. 13 wafer was . This analysis result shows that the gas generated a flow on the surface of No. 13 wafer.

With the introduction of diffuser tubes in FOUP, Figs. , and show the velocity field distribution on the surface of No. 1, No. 7, and No. 13 wafers, respectively. According to the result with the same air-flow input setting, the velocity at Points on the surface of No. 1 and No. 7 wafers approached . The gas flow velocity range on the surface of No. 13 wafer was 0.006 . This analysis shows that the gas generated a flow on the surface of the No. 13 wafer. The velocity difference range in the measuring areas 1-5 on the wafer surface was small. According to the above analysis result, when the FOUP was provided with diffuser tubes, a steady gas flow was
generated on the wafer surface for wafer surface purging. Hence, a relatively uniform circuit eigenvalue can be generated for the semiconductor wafer process.

Fig. 2 Wafer surface velocity field distribution when FOUP inlet side air-flow was set at . a denotes without diffuser tubes; represents with diffuser tubes.

Fig. 2. Wafer surface velocity field distribution when FOUP inlet side air-flow was set at . a denotes without diffuser tubes; represents with diffuser tubes.

Wafer surface gas velocity distribution pattern of FOUP with different intake air flows

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Fig. 3 shows the wafer surface velocity field distribution of FOUP with the diffuser tube design when the FOUP inlet side had different air flows. Figs. shows the velocity field distribution on the surface of No. 1, No. 7, and No. 13 wafers, respectively when the FOUP inlet side air-flow was set at . According to the color bar and velocity field distribution, the gas flow velocity range on the surface of No. 1, No. 7, and No. 13 were , and 0.028-0.05 , respectively. According to the analysis result, in the FOUP with the diffuser tube design, in comparison to Figs. 2(b1)-(b3), when the FOUP inlet side air-flow increased to . The difference range of wafer surface gas flow velocity decreased gradually. Therefore, this study increased the FOUP inlet side air-flow to and to analyze the velocity field on the surface of No. 1, No. 7, and No. 13 wafers in FOUP.

Figs. show the flow field analysis result when the FOUP inlet side air-flow was set at . According to the result, the values at No. 3 velocity measuring point on the surface of No. 1 and No. 7 wafers were relatively low, and the value at the velocity measuring point of the color bar approached zero. The velocity field distribution on the surface of No. 13 wafer generated a uniform velocity distribution. This analysis shows that when the FOUP inlet side air-flow is increased to , the velocity field and uniform velocity distribution occurs at various measuring points on the wafer surface. Under this air flow setting, the air velocity value at various velocity measuring points on the surface of No. 13 wafer was . Therefore, the FOUP inlet side air flow was increased to to analyze whether the velocity field distribution on the wafer surface of various layers in FOUP could be further homogenized. Figs. 3(c1)-(c3) shows the flow field analysis result when the air-flow increased to . Compared to the color bar, the velocity difference between the surface velocity fields of No. 1 and No. 7 wafers was smaller than that in Figs. 3(b1)-(b3).

In the FOUP with the diffuser tube design, the inlet side air-flow was set at , and the uniform distribution of wafer surface velocity field could be controlled.

Fig. 3 Wafer surface velocity field distribution of different air flows on the FOUP inlet side.
(a) intake air flow , (b) intake air flow , and (c) intake air flow .

Fig. 3. Wafer surface velocity field distribution of different air flows on the FOUP inlet side. (a) intake air flow , (b) intake air flow , and (c) intake air flow .

Summary

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.89.pdf

According to the Solidworks Flow Simulation boundary condition setting and analysis results, when the front opening unified pod (FOUP) was provided with gas diffuser tubes, the intake air flow setting and diffusion method of diffuser tubes could assist in homogenizing the wafer surface velocity field distribution. A uniformed wafer surface velocity field distribution helped remove residual moisture from the wafer surface to equalize the circuit values at various measuring points. Therefore, the function of FOUP on wafer transport can be enhanced by the optimum structural design of diffuser tube shapes and setting the size of pores in the surfaces of diffuser tubes in the future.

Acknowledgments

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.89.pdf

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial and information support provided for this study by Chung King Enterprise Co., LTD and MOST 111-2222-E-231-002-.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.89.pdf

GONZÁLEZ-AGUIRRE, P., et al. FOUP decontamination solutions to control AMCs in semiconductor fabs: Gas purge or wet cleaning? Microelectronic Engineering, 2018, 194:19-24.

DEN, Walter, et al. Airborne molecular contamination: Recent developments in the understanding and minimization for advanced semiconductor device manufacturing. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology, 2020, 9.6: 064003.

LIN, Tee, et al. Flow analysis of a front opening unified pod (FOUP) subjected to different fan filter unit (FFU) coverage area in mini-environment. International Journal of Thermofluids, 2021, 12: 100124.

KIM, Seong Chan; SCHELSKE, Greg. FOUP purge performance improvement using EFEM flow converter. In: 2016 27th Annual SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference (ASMC). IEEE, 2016. p. 6-11.

DULLIEN, Francis AL. Porous media: fluid transport and pore structure. Academic press, 2012.

HU, Shih-Cheng, et al. Humidity control for front opening unified pod after opening its door in a mini-environment. Applied Sciences, 2018, 8.7: 1149.

KHOO, Chun-Yong, et al. Purging of foup for 450 mm wafer manufacturing. In: ASMC 2013 SEMI Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Conference. IEEE, 2013. p. 171-173.

LIN, Tee, et al. Performance of different front-opening unified pod (FOUP) moisture removal techniques with local exhaust ventilation system. IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing, 2020, 33.2: 310-315.

HU, Shih-Cheng, et al. Air curtain application in a purged unified pod. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2017, 111: 1179-1183.

LIN, Tee, et al. Performance of different front-opening unified pod (FOUP) moisture removal techniques with local exhaust ventilation system. IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing, 2020, 33.2: 310-315.

LIN, Tee, et al. A Comparative Study on Velocity Fields, Humidity and Oxygen Concentration in a Front Opening Unified Pod (FOUP) During Purge. IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing, 2021, 35.1: 110-117.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-7/978-3-0364-1176-7

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 7, pp 95-103

doi: 10.4028/p-gdlw6S

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-04-22

Revised:
2023-08-03

Accepted:
2023-08-09

Online:
2023-10-13

Designing a Roundabout to Overcome Traffic Congestion at a Four-Armed Intersection

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

Hemavathy Ganapathi Malarvizhi

¹Research Scholar, Division of Transportation Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.

Professor, Division of Transportation Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.

a*hemaannaunivphd@gmail.com, malarnaveen1@gmail.com

Keywords: Traffic Congestion; Roundabouts; Intersection; Central Island.

Abstract

The growth rate of vehicles is increasing in most metropolitan areas, and as a result, traffic congestion is also increasing, particularly at intersections. Traffic congestion is one of the major problems faced by most of the developing countries despite the measures taken to mitigate and reduce it. In order to overcome traffic congestion, especially in four-way intersections with increasing growth rate of vehicles, roundabout design is a popular traffic management solution in urban areas. In most countries, roundabouts have been widely adopted as an alternative to signalized intersections due to their ease of operation with fewer conflict points. In a metropolitan city like Chennai, there are numerous areas facing traffic congestion. This study aims to design a roundabout for a four-armed intersection located at one of the most congested areas in Chennai, India - Porur Junction. It is a fourarmed intersection with traffic on all approach roads and controlled by a signalized intersection. The effective solution would be an elevated roundabout bridge by connecting the major roads towards Poonamallee and Guindy with a two lane road and the minor roads towards Kundrathur and Arcot Road with two separate lanes, one for entering and the other for exiting the junction. The efficiency of the elevated roundabout bridge is that it has speed breakers in the entry ramp which slows down the vehicle & has a central island structure which is used to effectively manage the traffic without stopping the vehicles. After passing through the Central Island, vehicles can exit the barrier at a higher speed than the entry speed in a clockwise direction.

1 Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

Our generation expects progress to be fast and efficient. In today's transport world, traffic is a major concern as it is seen as slowing down the progress of the economy. Progress in our cities is synonymous with the number of flyovers. According to a study by the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), Delhi, construction of flyovers and underpasses and widening of roads or right of way are not better approaches and solutions to deal with congestion and heavy road traffic. Within a few years of construction, such approaches have increased the number of private vehicles on the roads and worsened sustainability without reducing congestion. In Chennai, the fact remains that the flyover road remains congested, especially during peak hours. Flyovers are helpful in decongesting traffic at major intersections, but then create congestion at the next intersection. As an alternative solution, it is necessary to design and analyse an elevated roundabout bridge in place of the flyover to significantly reduce traffic congestion. The present study aims to design a roundabout for a flyover located at Porur in Chennai, India. The selected intersection has four approach roads with two-way traffic in all the approach roads. The traffic on the road consists of bicycle, car, three-wheeler (auto rickshaw, loader, tempo) and cycle, heavy vehicle (multi-axle bus, truck). The existing flyover, which cannot solve the problem of traffic congestion, is shown in (Fig. 1). As an alternative solution, it is necessary to design and analyse an elevated roundabout bridge in place of the flyover to significantly reduce the traffic congestion.

Figure 1 Showing before and after construction of Flyover in Porur- Chennai.
Source: Google Image

Figure 1. Figure 1 Showing before and after construction of Flyover in Porur- Chennai. Source: Google Image

Previous study has found that roundabouts are designed to intelligently control the traffic flow at the intersections without using the stop signs or traffic signals. Towhidul Islam et al. (2020) briefly discussed the possible benefits after converting an intersection into a roundabout and the benefit of finding the intersections where the authority should construct more roundabouts [9]. Mahajan et al. (2013) pointed out that widening and flyover construction have become the main solution to overcome the major conflicts at intersections, such as collision between through and right turn movements. As a remedy, he has provided a new geometric concept for designing rotaries at road intersections [7]. Vasantha kumar et al. (2017) has elaborated on the design of a roundabout for an uncontrolled multi-leg intersection and has highlighted the efficiency of the roundabout in handling uncontrolled intersection traffic during peak hours. He also highlighted the methodology of traffic volumes from different approach roads, which were collected using video graphics techniques and analysed for peak hour traffic volumes [6]. Elvik, (2003) showed that roundabouts reduce the number of injury accidents by to and fatal accidents by to .

2 Study Area & Methodology

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

2.1 Overview

For this study, a four-lane intersection was selected and the geographic and vehicle data of the intersection were collected. In the data collection, the data will be analysed to determine the capacity of each entry lane, entry flow rate, circulating and existing flow rate to calculate the central island, splitter island and sight distance. As a final product of this study, we propose to convert the existing flyover to a roundabout, which will show the benefits for sustainability. Based on the following analysis, we had selected this particular location as a study area to convert the existing intersection to a roundabout and determine the suitability of a roundabout intersection.

Traffic flow is the same in all four directions.

The maximum traffic volume is 3000 vehicles per hour and the minimum is 500 vehicles per hour.

The proportion of right-turning traffic is very high, typically over .

The study area is a four-way intersection and there is no provision for right-turning traffic.

2.2 Study Area

For the present study, Porur-Chennai, India is selected. The road section is shown in (Fig. 2). The traffic on the road consists of bicycle, car, three-wheeler (auto-rickshaw, loader, tempo) and bicycle, heavy vehicle (multi-axle bus, truck). The aim of the study is to design a new roundabout, mainly focused on intersections with only four legs intersecting at almost equal angles. The video data
collection was carried out to obtain the current traffic volume, which is the main input for the design of a roundabout. The data collection was carried out over a period of eight hours, from 7.30 to 11.30 in the morning and from 14.30 to 18.30 in the evening on a typical working day, using a handycam from the terrace of an apartment building close to the junction.

Figure 2 Showing the Study Area

Figure 2. Figure 2 Showing the Study Area

2.3 Vehicular Data Collection

In this study, the traffic volume was calculated using the video graphic method by counting the different types of vehicles approaching the intersection from all four approaches and then multiplying the values by the common factor called Passenger Car Unit (PCU). Traffic volumes were extracted for all the five classes of vehicles considered, namely two-wheelers, three-wheelers, passenger cars, light commercial vehicles (LCVs) and heavy commercial vehicles (HCVs). The class-wise traffic volumes observed from the video were converted into Passenger Car Units (PCU) using the PCU factors suggested in the IRC guidelines [3]. The PCU factors used were 0.75 for two-wheelers, 1 for three-wheelers, cars, LCVs and 2.8 for HCVs. It was found that between 9 and 10 a.m. was considered to be the maximum traffic volume compared to other hourly volumes during the morning hours. Similarly, during the evening hours, between 16.45 and 17.45, a maximum traffic volume was observed. The overall composition of the different vehicle categories also shows that there are motorised and non-motorised vehicles in (Fig.3). The distribution of vehicles per hour from the four entry lanes to the other lanes is shown in Table 1 and the traffic approaching the roundabout is shown in (Fig. 4).

Figure 3 Showing Overall Composition of Vehicle

Figure 3. Figure 3 Showing Overall Composition of Vehicle

Table 1 Vehicle per hour Distribution from Four Entry Lane to Other Lanes

Figure 4 Showing Vehicle per Hour Distribution from Four Entry Lane

Figure 4. Figure 4 Showing Vehicle per Hour Distribution from Four Entry Lane

3 Design of Roundabouts Intersections

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

Roundabouts are designed to control the flow of traffic at junctions without the need for stop signs or traffic lights.

3.1 Shape of the roundabouts

The different types of roundabouts are circular, elliptical, turbine, tangent, etc. The shape of the roundabouts can be selected based on the number of lanes and the angle of intersection between the roads. In this study area, the circular shape is preferred because it is a four-armed intersection, where all roads of equal importance carrying approximately equal volumes intersect at approximately equal angles.

3.2 Design Speed

The IRC -65 has recommended a design speed of (generally ) for roundabouts in urban and restricted areas. The elevated roundabout bridge has speed breakers in the entry ramp, which slow the vehicle and thereby reduce the speed.

3.3 Radius of curvature

Radius of curvature at entry point may be calculated by using the following formula as per IRC65:1976,

Where,
e - Superelevation rate
f - Friction factor
V - Design speed (in km/h)
R - Radius of curve at the entry of roundabouts (in m )
In a roundabouts, it is not possible to provide an adequate super elevation on the roads and hence the value of in the above equation.

Radius of Curve,

3.4 Radius of the curve at Exit

The radius of the curve at the exit should be greater than the radius of the central island and the radius of the curve at the entrance. In general, the radius of the curve at the exit is 1.5 to 2 times the radius of the curve at the entrance. Radius of exit curve to radius of entry curve. In the curves of a roundabout at the exit point as per IRC-65:1976,

3.5 Radius of the Central Island

The radius of the central island is kept larger than the radius of the curve at the entrance. In general, radius of central island radius of entrance curve.

3.6 Entry and Exit Angle

The entry angle should be 600 and the exit angle should be less that the entry angle. The exit angle should be small, even tangential.

3.7 Weaving Length

The weaving length is measured along the centre of the one-way road, between the channelling islands. In practice, the length over which vehicles can weave in or out may be less than this length, taking into account that a weaving movement is equal to the change in lateral displacement.

3.8 Width of Roundabout Carriageway

The width of the carriageway at the entrance and exit of a roundabout is determined by the movement of traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. The rate of traffic growth over the design period should
also be considered. In general, the IRC recommends that the minimum carriageway width should be at least 5 m with the necessary widening to allow for the curvature of the road.

The carriageway width consists of two groups

Width of non-weaving section

Width of weaving section

3.8.1 Width of the non-weaving section*

The width of the non-weaving section of the roundabout is equal to the widest single entry of the roundabout and generally it should be less than the width of the weaving section.

3.8.2 Width of the weaving section

The width of the weaving section of the roundabout should be one traffic lane width (equal to 3.5 m ) wider than the main entry as per IRC-65:1976,

Width of the weaving equation,
Where, - Width of the entry (in m)
e2 - Width of the non-weaving section.

3.9 Conflict Points

It can be seen that the number of vehicles travelling on the Porur highway is very high, i.e. 650 PCUs from north to south and 554 PCUs from east to north, as can be seen in (Fig. 5). The next step is to determine the inflow and outflow volumes in each of the access roads. For the calculation of conflict points, different vehicle classes are converted into PCU (Passenger Car Units). The conflict points for the Porur junction after interpretation and analysis of the traffic data are found and presented in (Fig.5). It can be seen that the sum of inflow and outflow was found to be maximum in the Porur (north) main road, i.e. about 2717 PCUs.

Figure 5 Showing the conflict point of the intersection.

Figure 5. Figure 5 Showing the conflict point of the intersection.

3.10 Capacity of the Roundabout

The geometric design of the roundabout should be capable of holding the traffic flow in all directions until the design period. The practical capacity is the same as the weaving capacity, which can accommodate the lowest traffic. The capacity of the intersection (or roundabout) depends on the following factors, as shown in Table 2.

Width of the weaving section

Average width of entry into the roundabout

Weaving length

Proportion of weaving traffic

The weaving capacity can be calculated from the following section as per IRC-65:1976,

Where,
w - weaving section width (in m ) - ranges from ( 6 to 18 m )
e - Average of both the entry width e1 and e2
- Ratio of e and w - should be within 0.4 to 1.0
l -Length of the weaving section (in m)
P - Proportion of the weaving traffic - ratio of sum of crossing traffic ( ) flow to the total traffic flow on the weaving section (varies from 0.4 to 1.0)

Table 2 Shows the parameters for the Design of Roundabout

S.No
Design Parameter
Units

1
Design speed V
30kmph

2
The width of carriage way at entry and exit
7.5m

3
Average width of entry e1 and width of non weaving section e2 (e)

e1=13m
e2=13m
13 m

4
Width of the weaving equation (w)
=e₁+e₂/₂ + 3.5
16.5m

5
Length of weaving section L = 4 * W
(Which is in between 18 to 90)
66 m (approved)

6
w/l (This is in between 0.12 to 0.40.)
0.25
(approved)

3.11 Parameters of various approaches

The next step is to find out the diverging, merging and weaving traffic from each of the four approach roads. This helps to find out the section where the proportion of the weaving traffic ( ), i.e., ratio of sum of Weaving to the total traffic is maximum. For the present intersection, the maximum proportion was found to occur between Valsarvakkam(south) and Guindy (East). The maximum weaving occurs in section and P value is 0.80 which lies in between 0.4 to 1
a) Poonamallee to Valsarvakkam(N-E)

b) Poonamallee to Kundrathur(N-W)

c) Valsarvakkam to Guindy(S-E)

d) Guindy to Kundrathur(S-W)
e)

The maximum weaving occurs in section and P value is 0.80 which lies in between 0.4 to 1 The next step is to calculate the practical capacity the rotary can handle for the given geometric conditions and proportion of weaving traffic to total traffic. The empirical formula to calculate the capacity of the rotary is given below [3].

The practical capacity of the rotary using equation was calculated as 4806 PCUs which is well above the maximum value of sum of inflow and outflow volumes, i.e., 2717 PCUs. Hence the design can be considered adequate to handle the present approach traffic volumes and finally, the drawing of the proposed rotary intersection was prepared using AutoCAD as shown (Fig.6).

Figure 6 Showing the Design of Roundabout

Figure 6. Figure 6 Showing the Design of Roundabout

4 Conclusion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

Roundabouts are a type of circular intersection or junction that are becoming more common in surrounding communities as evidence of their benefits grows. As well as being safe, they improve traffic flow and are cost effective. Left-hand, right-hand (T-bone) and head-on collisions are virtually eliminated by a roundabout. The elevated roundabout separator at Porur junction is proposed for the following reasons,

It can withstand heavier traffic congestion than a normal grade separator.

It has more safety, functional performance, economic impact, environmental impact, traffic calming, pedestrian safety and aesthetic appearance than a normal grade separator.

As there are four lane entrances and heavy right turning movements in almost all entrances, a raised roundabout is proposed.

The above problem can be solved by constructing an elevated roundabout. By reducing the chances of accidents, traffic congestion can be drastically reduced, which also helps to reduce pollution.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.7.95.pdf

Elvik, R. (2003). Effects on road safety of converting intersections to roundabouts: review of evidence from non-US studies. Transportation Research Record, 1847(1), 1-10.

IRC : 65 (1976) - Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India.

Kadiyali L R 2000 Traffic engineering and Transport Planning Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, India.

Krutika M. Gamit, Aney K. Patel, Ankit S. Vasava, Viral N. Patel, Rutvij J. Maheta and Rajan J. Lad, "Traffic congestion overcome by roundabout design", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume: 06, Issue: 04, Pg No 2453, 2019.

Rupesh Rathore, Lalitesh Sinha and anand Kumar raghuwanshi, "A Case Study of Radisson Square Indore for Design of Signalized Roundabout" International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science, Volume 4, Issue 1, January-February, 2016.

Vasantha Kumar, Himanshu Gulati and Shivam Arora, "Design of a roundabout for an uncontrolled multi-leg intersection in Chennai, India", Materials Science and Engineering 263 (2017) doi:10.1088/1757-899X/263/3/032030.

Mahajana, Anshul Umadekarb and Kruti Jethwac, "New Concept of Traffic Roundabout Design at Road Intersections", Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,( 2013 ) 2791-2799.

Sharukh Marfani, Dharmkumar Shihora, Chirag Kanthariya and Harshal Kansara, "Traffic Improvement for Urban Road Intersection", International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), Volume: 05 Issue: 03, P-ISSN: 2395-0072.

Towhidul Islam, S. M. R. Rahman and Md Saiful Amin, "Intersection design as a roundabout" (2020), proceedings of the 5 th International Conference on Civil Engineering for Sustainable Development, ICCESD 2020, 7~9 February 2020, KUET, Khulna, Bangladesh, ISBN-978-984-34-8764-3.

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Keywords Index

#

3D Printing Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

A

Absorption Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Advanced Oxidation Process Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

Alternative Motor Fuels Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Altshuller Matrix Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Aluminium Alloy Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Amc The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

B

Biopolymer (pla) Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

C

Cable Gland Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Cad/cae Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Cement Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Components Trimming Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Compressive Strength Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

D

Design Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Diffuser Tubes The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

E

Ecological Safety Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Engineering Properties Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Environment Protection Technologies Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

F

Fenton Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

Forecasting Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Front Opening Unified Pod The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

Functional Model Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

H

Heterogeneous Catalysis Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

I

Impact Force Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

Inventive Solution Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

L

Lateritic Brick Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Lubrication Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

M

Mathematical Model Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Mechanical Properties Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

Molecular Dynamics Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

N

Nanocrystalline Aluminum Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

O

Oxidation Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

P

Particle The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

Perturbation Theory Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Phase Equilibrium Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Polymer (petg) Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

R

Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Robot Chassis Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

S

Shock Front Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

Shock Wave Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

Static Structural Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Structural Steel Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Surface Roughness Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

T

Thermal Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Thermophysical Properties Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Traffic Congestion; Roundabouts; Intersection; Central Island Designing a Roundabout to Overcome Traffic Congestion at a Four-Armed Intersection

Triz Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

U

Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

W

Wafer The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

Wastewater Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

Authors Index

A

Abdulkareem, S. Depth Treatment of Engineering Applications Wastewater Using a Sequential Heterogeneous Fenton and Biodegradation Approach: Review

Abdulwahab, R. Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Akinwamide, G. Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

Anifowose, M. Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

B

Borysenko, V. Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

C

Chen, W. Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

D

Dangra, K. Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Dantas, G. Effect of the Degree of Filling on Mechanical Properties of Polymeric Specimens from Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol and Polylactic Acid Produced by 3D Printing

Deshpande, A. Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

G

Gambhire, G. Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

Gosavi, M. Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

H

Hemavathy, M. Designing a Roundabout to Overcome Traffic Congestion at a Four-Armed Intersection

Hwang, S. The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

J

Jain, I. Enhancing Cable Gland Design Efficiency through TRIZ-Driven Innovation

Jin, W. Experimental Investigation on Axial Ultrasonic Vibration Assisted Milling of Cr12MoV

Ju, Y. Molecular Dynamics Simulation on Shocked Nanocrystalline Aluminum

K

Kondratenko, O. Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

L

Lievtierov, A. Determination of Thermophysical Properties of Alternative Motor Fuels as an Environmental Aspect of Internal Combustion Engines

Lin, Y. The Study of Velocity Field in Front Opening Unified Pod by CAE

M

Malarvizhi, G. Designing a Roundabout to Overcome Traffic Congestion at a Four-Armed Intersection

O

Odeyemi, S. Evaluation of Engineering Properties of Fired Cement Lateritic Brick

P

Phadtare, T. Comparative Finite Element Analysis of a Novel Robot Chassis Using Structural Steel and Aluminium Alloy Materials

R

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