Engineering Innovations Vol. 8

Innovation Towards Empathy in Architecture and Design

Edited by
Prof. Santina Di Salvo

Engineering Innovations Vol. 8

Innovation Towards Empathy in Architecture and Design

Special topic volume with invited peer-reviewed papers only

Edited by

Prof. Santina Di Salvo

Scientific.Net

2024 Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland

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Volume 8 of
Engineering Innovations
ISSN print 2813-0995
ISSN web 2813-1002

Full text available online at https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-8/978-3-0364-1230-6

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp -1-0

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Accepted:
2023-11-21

Online:
2024-01-03

Guest Editor

Santina Di Salvo

Ph.D. Professor in Architectural Technology

Department of Architecture and Engineering of Polis University, Tirana (Albania)

Preface

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.-1.pdf

This special publication "Innovation Towards Empathy in Architecture and Design" covers diverse aspects of architecture and construction fields such as systemic-relational design, biocomposites, innovative lighting systems for smarter cities, potential solutions for addressing global warming and pollution, new trends in 3D printing for architecture, etc.

It also explores strategies from past and current architectural practices, along with anticipated future challenges.

This edition presents the results of scientific research within academic or professional projects of national and international significance, all aligned with an empathetic approach to architecture and design.

Much of the experimental work showcased, exploring ecological, aesthetic, and social dimensions, advocates for holistic thinking, emphasizing the importance of effective innovative processes.

This collection of contributions serves as a valuable source for researchers, architects, and engineers engaged in both theoretical and practical research within the realms of architectural and design innovation.

I extend my sincere gratitude to all the authors for their invaluable contributions, as well as to the reviewers for their comprehensive and timely evaluations of the papers. Additionally, I express my deep appreciation to the Trans Tech Publications publisher team for their support and collaboration which helped to bring this special issue to life.

Table of Contents

Preface

Chapter 1: Urban Environmental Design

Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

Fabrizio Aimar, Klodjan Xhexhi

Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

Klodjan Xhexhi, Besnik Aliaj

LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

Silvia Di Caro

Chapter 2: Innovative Approach in Contemporary Architecture

Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

Santina Di Salvo

Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

Carla Langella

Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

Mariangela Niglio

A Different Empathy Towards the Use of DIY Biocomposites in Design

Carlo Santulli

Keywords Index

Authors Index

Chapter 1

Urban Environmental Design

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-8/978-3-0364-1230-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 3-15

doi: 10.4028/p-fEEwg7

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-08-16

Accepted:
2023-09-04

Online:
2024-01-03

Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

Fabrizio Aimar , Klodjan Xhexhi

Texas A&M University, 3167 TAMU | Langford Building A College Station, Texas 77843-3167

POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Tirana, Albania

fabrizio_aimar@universitetipolis.edu.al, klodjan_xhexhi@universitetipolis.edu.al

Keywords: land cover, artificial surfaces, urban areas, air quality, global warming

Abstract

Cities and towns are expanding and thriving as a result of urbanization, which also significantly changes the local climate. One of the most significant phenomena associated with urbanization is the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. This phenomenon is increasingly being studied worldwide. The paper aims to investigate the UHI phenomenon in the metropolitan area of Tirana, Albania. It analyses the impact of the UHI on four specific locations in Tirana, its causes and mitigation measures, as well as variations in surface temperature, CO 2 emissions, and relative humidity. The regions are measured and observed using a specific instrument such as the Testo 435. Considering the mean surface temperature variations between urban and rural regions ranging from to , CO 2 emissions from 302.9 ppm to 416.2 ppm , and relative humidity from to , it is found that the UHI impact in Tirana is significant. The lack of green spaces, high building density, urban patterns, building materials used, transport, and energy use are the main contributors to the UHI in central Tirana. Increasing green spaces, using reflective materials, and promoting sustainable urban design are some of the mitigation techniques suggested to reduce the UHI effect in Tirana.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

The capital of Albania, Tirana, is experiencing the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect due to significant urbanization. The UHI effect is the phenomenon where temperatures in urban areas are significantly higher than those in the surrounding rural areas [1]. Due to its negative impact on human health [2], energy consumption [3], and the environment, it is important to study the UHI effect on urban tissues in order to find mitigation strategies to minimize this effect.

Ongoing climate change prompts questions and reflections on the systemic status quo of our society to understand its trajectories and assess multiple future scenarios.

By 19 March 2023, the atmospheric CO2 concentration will have reached 420.62 ppm , compared to 280 ppm at pre-industrial levels, with concentrations continuing to rise. In this context, the IPCC (AR5, 2014) offers several possible scenarios for 2100 radiative forcing values (Representative Concentration Pathway or RCP) of , and compared to pre-industrial levels. Under the necessary assumptions, 421 ppm is reached with RCP2.6, 538 ppm with RCP4.5, 670 ppm with RCP6.0, and finally a doubling of current to as much as 936 ppm in the RCP8.5 scenario.

This would result in significant temperature changes in the most prominent European cities over the 30 -year period 2020-2050. Considering Tirana, Albania, as a case study, the maximum temperature of the warmest month is likely to increase by , resulting in an average annual temperature change of [4]. Tirana will experience the same temperature as the city of San Antonio, Texas, USA, currently experiences (ibid). In addition, of the world's cities will have to live with climates that currently exist but at different latitudes, while will have to live with entirely new climates (ibid).

According to Spano et al. (2020), climate change impacts in Italy will cost of GDP per capita by 2100 , in the range of +2 to temperature increase. They will affect of the population, exposing cities to heat waves and more intense rainfall. It will lead to increased health risks for
citizens, with the onset of cardiovascular and respiratory problems, especially in the elderly, and will also affect the safety of infrastructure and services [5].

Cities are warmer than rural areas as a result of the urban heat island effect [6]. According to Hardy et al., around of the world's population lives in cities [7]. Thus, the majority of the world's population is affected by the UHI phenomenon. The reduction of vegetation, the density of our cities, and hard and heat-absorbing surfaces are the main sources of the heat island effect [8]. The urban heat island increases energy consumption in summer, increases the concentration of harmful pollutants, increases emissions, reduces indoor and outdoor thermal comfort, and affects mortality and health outcomes [9]. Various studies have shown a reduction in outdoor comfort as a result of the increase in temperature. The main interventions related to this issue to improve outdoor comfort include areas such as vegetation, water, building form, and materials.

Mahmutaj et al. (2013), in their analysis of temperature trends in Tirana from 1971 to 2000, found that the urban temperature increased by per year, which was higher than the temperature increase in rural areas. The study underlines that the expansion of urban areas and the construction of new buildings were the main drivers of the UHI in Tirana. Energy consumption for air conditioning and vehicle traffic also contributed significantly to the UHI effect [10].

In light of the above, this paper aims to understand the current situation in Tirana, Albania, by assessing the contribution of public spaces in its neighborhoods to potential Urban Heat Islands (UHI). Measurements using detectors will be carried out on sidewalks in selected public areas and then placed around each other. The selected areas for measurement will be equipped with courtyards located in the inner and outer city to undermine comparisons of measured values. Mitigating and adaptive solutions will then be proposed through strategies and actions (e.g. paving the most sealed areas and planting green infrastructure). Measurements will be taken on several types of pavements in each case, on green spaces, pavements, and roads, in order to draw conclusions. This paper aims to further expand and update the topic, building on previous contributions by other authors in the field, such as Dervishi, Lakaj, and Vathi (2012), Panariti, Maliqari and Tashi (2015), Picari and Dervishi (2019) and Xhexhi (2023), in line with the Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Action Plan for Tirana (2015) [11].

The findings presented in the paper will be useful to support the upcoming monitoring and risk mapping of urban areas affected by flash floods, dewatering of public and private areas, and rainwater harvesting buffers. This insight into four selected neighborhoods in Tirana will also provide suggestions on which of them are most at risk, as a result of investigations conducted through interdisciplinary readings. These will target and suggest mitigation and adaptation measures to be implemented on an ongoing basis through a learning-by-doing approach. This approach is in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals no. 3 "Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages", no. 7 "Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", no. 8 "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all", no. 10 "Reduce inequalities within and between countries", no. 11 "Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable", and no. 13 "Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts" [12].

Research Aims. The authors aim to demonstrate that integrated approaches in the fields of architecture and urbanism, carried out by combining tools such as ground truthing during field surveys and software simulations, are useful in identifying ongoing trends in urban contexts.

Specifically, the research aims to detect quantitatively and then analyze and discuss qualitatively:

the presence and extent of urban heat islands in metropolitan areas, specifically in Tirana, Albania, selected as a case study,

the variations in temperature ( ), carbon dioxide concentration ( CO 2 ), and relative humidity (%) measured on the ground on three types of pavements in pre-selected areas within the city of Tirana, which occurred over a given time period,

some of the environmental variables composing the microclimate (i.e. temperature, relative humidity) of these pre-selected areas in order to understand recurring problems and suggest local mitigation approaches.

Materials and Methods

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

Study areas. The four study areas selected by the authors are all located in Tirana, Albania, whose metropolitan area had a population of 925,268 on 1 January 2023 [13]. In terms of geography, it has an altitude of 125 m above sea level and geographical coordinates of and . The four case studies are located in different neighborhoods, the first of which is POLIS University at 12, Rruga Bylis, Kashar , the second is the Garden City complex on Rruga Kastriotet, Kamza (41.343635, 19.778984), the third is on Jordan Misja Street (41.336376, 19.810689) and the fourth is on Kavaja Street (Figure 1).

Fig. 1. The study areas in Tirana, Albania, are as follows: 1) POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Kashar, 2) Garden City complex, Rruga Kastriotet, Kamza, 3) Jordan Misja Street, and 4) Kavaja Street. (Source: Google Street Map. Authors' elaboration).

Fig. 1. The study areas in Tirana, Albania, are as follows: 1) POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Kashar, 2) Garden City complex, Rruga Kastriotet, Kamza, 3) Jordan Misja Street, and 4) Kavaja Street. (Source: Google Street Map. Authors' elaboration).

Environmental detectors. The device used for the measurement is the Testo 435, manufactured by the German company Testo SE & Co. KGaA. The Testo 435 is a multi-functional indoor and outdoor air quality meter that performs a variety of different measurements, including air temperature, air flow, volumetric flow rate, humidity, lux, ambient , etc. (Figure 2).

In this study, one of the probes is used to measure emissions into the atmosphere. The IAQ probe (order no. 06321535 ) is particularly suitable for monitoring air quality control. This probe can be used to measure , temperature, relative humidity, and absolute pressure simultaneously. This paper focuses only on the measurement of , outdoor temperature, and outdoor relative humidity in the specially selected neighborhoods of Tirana, Albania.

Fig. 2. The Testo 435 detector. (Source: Authors.)

Fig. 2. The Testo 435 detector. (Source: Authors.)

The probe has a temperature range of with an accuracy of , a humidity range of with an accuracy of +/- and a range of with an accuracy of 50 ppm CO 2 or of mv [14].

The evaluation grid. The evaluation grid provides three possible measurements for each of the pavements considered (i.e. asphalt in public roads, self-locking tiles in footpaths, and public greenery), namely soil temperature ( ), and relative humidity (%). A table was used for each of the study areas shown in Figure 1 for each of the four rounds of measurements taken. Table 1 was produced by the authors using the Table command in Microsoft Word.

Table 1. The evaluation grid used for each round of field measurements. (Authors' elaboration).

Location no. x (insert a number)

Replace here with the name and/or location

Day

dd/mm/2023
Temperature on the ground

(°C)
CO₂

(Ppm)
Relative humidity

(%)

Asphalt
Sidewalk
Greenery

01

02

03

The four rounds of evaluation measurements. The purpose of the mentioned four rounds of field-based measurements was to determine the presence and extent of one or more Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) in Tirana, comparing the different data obtained in the four areas selected as case studies.

The first round was conducted on February 23, 2023, in the four selected areas. The weather conditions at the beginning of the session were ( ), cloudy, precipitation expected , average humidity , and wind . At the end of the session, they were , primarily sunny, with rainfall expected at , average humidity at , and wind at . Measurements were taken on three different surfaces, namely asphalt, sidewalk, and greenery, using the Testo 435 detector (Figure 3).

Fig. 3. The sample of surfaces analyzed with the detector. From left to right, asphalt, self-locking concrete pavers, and greenery. (Source: Authors).

Fig. 3. The sample of surfaces analyzed with the detector. From left to right, asphalt, self-locking concrete pavers, and greenery. (Source: Authors).

In the first and third rounds, the measurements were affected by the long time used by the authors to obtain the measurements, which amounted to a total of 151 minutes for the first and 180 minutes for the second and fourth areas. Only in the first round, was used only one detector for the measurements.

To obtain more accurate results, the second, third, and fourth rounds were carried out using two detectors instead of a single one, allowing the authors to undertake independently the field measurements. It also allowed the two authors to perform the measurements at the same time and therefore with greater precision for later comparison purposes. Moreover, this helped in reducing the total exposure time to an average of 63 minutes in the second and fourth rounds of measurements.

The second round was conducted in the same areas on March 23, 2023. The weather conditions at the beginning of the session were , mostly sunny, with precipitation expected at , average humidity at , and wind at . At the end of the session, they were , primarily sunny, with rainfall expected at , average humidity at , and wind at . Measurements were taken on three different surfaces, namely asphalt, sidewalk, and greenery, using the Testo 435 detector.

The third round was conducted on April 24, 2023, in the same selected areas. The weather conditions at the beginning of the session were , cloudy, precipitation expected , average humidity , and wind . At the end of the session, they were ( ), mostly cloudy, with rainfall expected at , average humidity at , and wind at . Measurements were taken on three different surfaces, namely asphalt, sidewalk, and greenery, using the Testo 435 detector.

The fourth and last round was conducted on May 29, 2023, in the same selected areas. The weather conditions at the beginning of the session were ( ), mostly sunny, with precipitation expected at , average humidity at , and wind at . At the end of the session, they were , partly cloudy, with rainfall expected at , average
humidity at , and wind at . Measurements were taken on three different surfaces, namely asphalt, sidewalk, and greenery, using the Testo 435 detector.

The relative records found in the four measurement rounds are shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2. The detailed findings of the four rounds of measurements and the average values per each location and type of pavement. (Authors' elaboration).

Measurements results
Location no.1
Polis University
Location no.2
Garden City Complex
Location no.3
Jordan Misja Street
Location no.4
Kavaja Street

Asphalt
Sidewalk
Greenery
Asphalt
Sidewalk
Greenery
Asphalt
Sidewalk
Greenery
Asphalt
Sidewalk
Greenery

Measurement no.1
Temperature
[21°C]
[20.5°C]
[19.1°C]
[21.4°C]
[20.5°C]
[20°C]
[20.5°C]
[20.7°C]
[18.3°C]
[18°C]
[17.5°C]
[15.7°C]

CO₂
[380
Ppm]
[351
Ppm]
[344
Ppm]
[359
Ppm]
[363
Ppm]
[360
Ppm]
[358
Ppm]
[356
Ppm]
[352
Ppm]
[330
Ppm]
[343
Ppm]
[328
Ppm]

Relative
Humidity
[51.2%]
[55%]
[59%]
[46.3%]
[50.5%]
[60%]
[46.6%]
[46.8%]
[57.2%]
[54.2%]
[57%]
[67.5%]

Time interval and
weather condition
23/02/2023
13:13-13:26
(partly cloudy/ cloudy)
13:58-14:10
(partly cloudy/ cloudy)
14:26-14:38
(cloudy)
14:54-15:04
(partly cloudy)

Measurement no.2
Temperature
[31.8°C]
[31.7°C]
[30.4°C]
[30.1°C]
[34.3°C]
[32.4°C]
[41.5°C]
[40.3°C]
[36.5°C]
[36.2°C]
[42.5°C]
[28.1°C]

CO₂
[306
Ppm]
[290
Ppm]
[275
Ppm]
[278
Ppm]
[276
Ppm]
[267
Ppm]
[503
Ppm]
[502
Ppm]
[494
Ppm]
[537
Ppm]
[526
Ppm]
[441
Ppm]

Relative
Humidity
[24%]
[23.8%]
[30.4%]
[25.6%]
[25.5%]
[43.3%]
[18.2%]
[20.5%]
[38.4%]
[19.5%]
[18.5%]
[47.5%]

Time interval and
weather condition
23/03/2023
13:35-13:50
(mostly sunny)
12:37-12:57
(mostly sunny)
12:30-12:50
(mostly sunny)
13:35-13:50
(mostly sunny)

Measurement no.3
Temperature
[22.8°C]
[22.5°C]
[22.3°C]
[33.5°C]
[30.8°C]
[30.2°C]
[25.8°C]
[28°C]
[24.3°C]
[26.4°C]
[26.3°C]
[22.2°C]

CO₂
[290
Ppm]
[288
Ppm]
[289
Ppm]
[262
Ppm]
[285
Ppm]
[302
Ppm]
[265
Ppm]
[274
Ppm]
[273
Ppm]
[285
Ppm]
[281
Ppm]
[297
Ppm]

Relative
Humidity
[45.2%]
[49.4%]
[60.1%]
[23.8%]
[31.2%]
[42.8%]
[34%]
[31%]
[39.6%]
[39.1%]
[39.5%]
[60.9%]

Time interval and
weather condition
24/04/2023
15:10-15:25
(mostly cloudy)
12:55-13:10
(cloudy)
13:35-13:50
(cloudy)
14:15-14:30
(cloudy)

Measurement no.4
Temperature
[40.4°C]
[39.5°C]
[39.1°C]
[44.8°C]
[46.8°C]
[49.5°C]
[53.1°C]
[50.2°C]
[45.9°C]
[45.3°C]
[43.6°C]
[41.9°C]

CO₂
[299
Ppm]
[301
Ppm]
[300
Ppm]
[293
Ppm]
[301
Ppm]
[289
Ppm]
[535
Ppm]
[560
Ppm]
[523
Ppm]
[484
Ppm]
[497
Ppm]
[475
Ppm]

Relative
Humidity
[25.7%]
[26.3%]
[37.1%]
[22.9%]
[21.5%]
[32.4%]
[19.8%]
[19.3%]
[38.3%]
[22.2%]
[27.4%]
[41%]

Time interval and
weather condition
29/05/2023
14:26-14:45
(mostly sunny/partly
cloudy)
13:38-13:57
(mostly sunny/partly
cloudy)
13:50-14:05
(mostly sunny/partly
cloudy)
14:30-14:45
(mostly sunny/partly
cloudy)

Average
Temperature
[29°C]
[28.5°C]
[27.7°C]
[32.5°C]
[33.1°C]
[33°C]
[35.2°C]
[34.8°C]
[31.2°C]
[31.5°C]
[32.5°C]
[26.9°C]

CO₂
[318.7
Ppm]
[307.5
Ppm]
[300.7
Ppm]
[298
Ppm]
[306.3
Ppm]
[304.5
Ppm]
[415.2
Ppm]
[423
Ppm]
[410.5
Ppm]
[409
Ppm]
[411.7
Ppm]
[385.2
Ppm]

Relative
Humidity
[36.5%]
[38.6%]
[46.6%]
[29.6%]
[32.1%]
[44.6%]
[29.6%]
[29.4%]
[43.4%]
[33.7%]
[35.6%]
[54.2%]

Results

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

Based on the record reported in Table 2, it is clearly visible that the average temperature rises as one approaches the city center of Tirana, mainly due to public activities, less permeable construction materials, lower wind speed, higher urban density, and lack of green areas, among others. In general, the main streets are the ones that provide more heat due to asphalt, direct sun exposure, highly absorbing materials such as asphalt, and lack of vegetation.

Fig. 4. The average values per each location including all types of pavements. (Authors' elaboration.)

Fig. 4. The average values per each location including all types of pavements. (Authors' elaboration.)

In Table 2 and Figure 4, it is observed that location no. 3 has the highest values of the measured and average temperature on asphalt and sidewalk, meanwhile, location no. 2 has the peak value of measured and average temperature on greenery. Compared to location no.1, the temperature differences are approximately . Furthermore, the lowest measured and mean temperature on asphalt and sidewalk are represented by location no.1. The most polluted areas in terms of emissions are location no. 4 and location no. 3 with a difference of approximately 100 ppm compared to location no. 1 and 2. According to the measured and average values of relative humidity location no. 1 has the highest values on asphalt and sidewalk, meanwhile location no. 4 has the highest values on greenery. Meanwhile, the lowest measured values of relative humidity including all types of pavements are represented by location no.3.

Table 3. The mean values per each location including all types of pavements. (Authors' elaboration).

Location no.1
Polis University
Location no.2
Garden City complex
Location no.3
Jordan Misja Street
Location no.4
Kavaja Street

Temperature
(Total mean value)
[28.4 °C]
[32.8 °C]
[33.7 °C]
[30.3 °C]

CO₂
(Total mean value)
[308.9 Ppm]
[302.9 Ppm]
[416.2 Ppm]
[401.9 Ppm]

Relative humidity
(Total mean value)
[40.5%]
[35.4%]
[34.1%]
[41.2%]

Fig. 5. The overall average values per each location including all types of pavements. (Authors' elaboration).

Fig. 5. The overall average values per each location including all types of pavements. (Authors' elaboration).

According to the overall temperature values including all types of pavements, location no. 3 has the highest value, as reported in Table 3 and Figure 5. Compared to location no. 1 the temperature difference is , which is relevant. It is important to underline that location no. 4 (a central area) due to temperature as a result of positioning the device in an area with more greenery, the values are lower than in other areas. As a consequence, this has reduced the overall average value of the measured temperature of the area. The most polluted areas in terms of emissions are locations no. 3 and 4. The winner of this category is location no. 2 with a mean value of 302.9 ppm . This is due to the distance of the area to the main streets. It is observed that the overall relative humidity is higher in locations no. 4 and 1. This value increases a lot again in location no.4, as a result of the chosen area of the measurements, which was very green, and shadows were present. It is noticeable and understandable that location no. 3 which had the highest values of the temperature has the lowest value of relative humidity of .

Discussion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

Comparing the current research with other national and international studies. According to Xhexhi (2023), urban design and form are the results of a complicated interaction of many strains and factors, including social, economic, political, strategic, transportation, regional regulations, aesthetic considerations, and many more. In general, urban densities, orientations, street networks, and shapes are associated with climate change, besides geography. Additionally, the microclimatic conditions of outdoor areas are significantly influenced by the density of urban buildings. Each type of outdoor space depends on its relationship with its surroundings. It is crucial to emphasize that the temperature in both indoor and outdoor areas will be lower if there is a low ratio between the size of the structure and the width of the spaces. Tirana, as part of the Mediterranean coastal zone, has an average annual temperature of . In Tirana's city center, there are regions with a lot of pollution due to a higher percentage of shops, settlements, and traffic. Such areas contribute to the creation of the heat island phenomenon. Communities might be impacted by heat islands by contributing to increased summer energy consumption, cooling expenses, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, water quality, mortality, and heat-related illness. The role of vegetation is sometimes critical, creating microclimates in the downtown area. Vegetation can reduce wind speed, create cooler microclimates, regulate humidity, and lower temperatures. In the actual study, it is observed that the measured temperature is lower in grasslands, meanwhile, the relative humidity is higher. The temperature can be reduced by only one single tree up to . It has been observed that trees have a bigger impact on humidity than on temperature. A possible approach for reducing the heat island effect in metropolitan areas is the implementation of green belts. In general, the relative humidity in the Mediterranean region is constant and is influenced by regional elements. Nicosia has an average humidity rating of , Gibraltar has a value of , whereas Tirana has a value of . On the other hand, the role of building materials can determine the temperature range and fluctuations of a particular area. For instance, the albedo of the vegetation is low. In general, the values are between and of grassland and coniferous forest. Meanwhile, when reflecting the light at a low angle, water has an albedo of up to . Increasing albedo and vegetation can effectively reduce surface and near-ground air temperatures. Vegetation also reduces the released into the atmosphere. It is observed that young, fast-growing, and healthy trees perform better in reducing . Trees in urban areas are 15 times more valuable than those in rural areas in reducing and limiting . The heat island effect will be amplified in cities with little vegetation because of pollution and temperature rise. The absence of greenery mostly in some of the areas taken into consideration in this study causes temperature and rise. The role of water surfaces which have an albedo of up to in all areas is missing, so the majority of the light is absorbed by the materials causing temperature rise. It is observed that the relative humidity is higher due to vegetation and grasslands [15, 16].

According to Dervishi et al. (2012), to evaluate interior and outdoor thermal comfort, surface materials, climatic data, and urban geometry are essential. The author considers four different areas in the city of Tirana, which have different characteristics and different locations among each other, as was also done by the present research. Likewise, the areas were chosen in the city center and the suburban area. The temperature measurements were made for each area and each day during June, July, and August, differently from the current research that was carried out during February, March, April, and May. The highest temperature is recorded in the city center area and the lowest temperature is recorded in the suburban area with a maximum difference of . This difference is greater than that found in the present research, about . Dervishi et al. also explain the impact of the UHI in enclosed urban areas, the importance of the H/W ratio of buildings, and their orientation. According to their study, the need for vegetation prevails concerning water and other needs of the inhabitants. Differently from the current research, Dervishi et al. consider the importance of building materials as an essential future of the UHI phenomenon, considering their reflectivity and absorption capacity. The effect of surface material is related to emissions, reflective properties of materials, etc. Both researchers agree on the fact that the UHI effect is more present in polluted areas. It is observed that emissions are higher in the asphalt areas than in the concrete areas. Moreover, concrete releases
about less than asphalt pavement, while the current research shows almost similar values [17].

Picari and Dervishi (2019) analyze the UHI phenomena in Tirana, Albania, and develop some strategies to mitigate the UHI effect to reduce the temperature in the city center. They consider three locations in the city of Tirana, one lesser than the current research. The zone located next to the artificial lake results in having the highest humidity level due to the water surface and, for this reason, it was discarded when the authors were in the identification process for identifying the four sites in Tirana. However, in the Sami Frasheri area, these levels are significantly greater at night and in the early morning, while the current research only focuses on daytime measurements. The data have been collected during three months of summer, extracted from the weather station placed on the site, while the current research, has opted for months in the late winter-early summer for the rounds of measurements. The highest temperatures were recorded in the Prokop Myzeqari zone. Once the three zones were compared, the Prokop Myzeqari zone had the lowest humidity. In addition, Picari and Dervishi note that the wind speed decreases in heavily built zones and at ground level. Large open expanses and open corridor roadways have high wind speeds. In regions with more humidity as well as stronger winds, the air temperature is lower. In the main street, the temperatures seem to be minor because of the wind corridors and shady trees. In addition, the areas exposed to the sun have the highest temperatures. The temperature in the surrounding zone can vary due to different materials such as asphalt or light concrete pavement used in sidewalks and green areas. Due to the fact that light concrete pavement reflects more light than black asphalt, it absorbs less heat than the other one [18].

Panariti, Maliqari, and Tashi (2015) analyze the urban thermal comfort in Durrës, Albania, promenade, instead of Tirana. According to their findings, surface heat islands (SHIs) are critically present in the afternoon, while the current research is focused only on a given time frame. The heat radiation in promenades is decreased through the use of various materials, green spaces, and water surfaces, while these evaluations are not in the scope of this paper. The incorporation of random urban textures has a significant impact on outdoor thermal comfort. The promenade is wholly exposed to solar radiation. On the other hand, the sea breeze influences the air temperature, differently from the case study of Tirana. In three distinct parts of the promenade composed of various materials, measurements of the air's temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, dew point, and thermal radiation were made, while the current research focuses on four areas. The results show the importance and necessity of shading elements on the promenade, as in the case study of Tirana. Panariti, Maliqari, and Tashi found that grass, green vases, and wet tiles are found to be up to cooler than concrete and granite tiles. Concrete tiles are warmer than granite tiles, and wood texture is cooler than granite and concrete tiles. The emitted temperature of the green vases and the grass was each, and the wooden texture was . Moreover, in summer, some of the urban textures such as granite tiles, concrete tiles, and concrete vases are hotter than the air temperature [19]. By contrast, evaluations regarding the application of different materials are not in the scope of this paper, which limits to suggest of some hints to face the UHI effects.

Another research by Dervishi et al. (2018) indicated that during the summer, there might be a temperature differential of up to between urban and rural locations of Tirana. The percentage of impermeable surfaces in Tirana, which was adversely connected with green spaces, was also directly related to the UHI impact. By reflecting solar radiation, reflective materials like white roofs can be used to reduce the UHI impact [20]. Similarly, Brestovci et al. (2019) discovered that throughout the summer, Tirana had temperatures that were 2 to higher than those in the rural districts nearby. The study discovered that adding more green space might lower the UHI impact by 1 to [21]. Conversely, the current research does not extend the survey to the rural locations but focuses on the urban metropolitan area of Tirana, Albania, and does not go into details regarding specific solutions to mitigate the UHI effects.

Regarding potential mitigation actions that can be considered, other researchers have proposed mitigation and adaptation approaches in Albania and other European countries. In brief, Mahmutaj et al. (2013) proposed the introduction of green elements and green roofs as tools for countering the
microclimate disbalances due to the UHIs phenomena in Albania [10]. Similarly, Aimar (2023) suggests the potential planting of additional green elements to complete the existing but decayed urban green infrastructure system, as well as after the pavement removal process in the public spaces located in the city of Asti, Piedmont, Italy [22]. Lastly, Battisti et al. (2023) suggest the adoption of Green Forestry in urban areas as a tool part of urban nature-based solutions with the aim to improve ecosystem services to improve people's well-being in terms of air quality and health in general [23].

Transferability of the current study into the African context.

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Metropolitan heat and air pollution in urban areas have an unbreakable link and contribute to increasing unfavorable health effects for city inhabitants. The relationship between these three aspects within African transport sector developments gives numerous urban design mitigation techniques to increase human health and well-being. In SSA (Sub-Saharan Africa), the urbanization process has resulted in changes to urban biophysical characteristics such as building constructions, intense mobility and transportation corridors, and paved surfaces. Because of their low reflectivity, these surfaces are impermeable to solar radiation and absorb it, resulting in 'heat islands' with somewhat higher temperatures than the surrounding suburban and rural regions. The physical characteristics of the urban built environment, such as height, compactness, and organization, impact UHI in African cities.

Nowadays, regarding the issue, research remains insufficient. Despite having a greater green space-to-paved surface ratio, studies have shown that the UHI effect still exists in African cities. UHI can produce heat waves and a declining human thermal comfort in extreme circumstances. Some of the mitigation strategies to minimize the UHI effect are urban green spaces (UGS) and cool Infrastructure (greenery, walls, roofs, and pavement); construction design and material (high radiation materials; and pollution absorber materials); governmental policies; decarbonizing vehicles; and monitoring the mobility corridors. These concepts should be consolidated by urban planners in land use planning, urban design, greening, and environmental heat reduction for current and new urban projects [24].

According to Marcotullio et al. (2021), in the year 2100, heat waves of more than might affect 300 million Africans living in cities. Approximately of individuals exposed (under the age of 5 years and over 64 years old) may be heat sensitive. UHI might increase exposure to 950 million, and of the population is expected to be vulnerable. In the worst-case scenario, 2 billion urban Africans might be subjected to such temperature rises [25].

Conclusions

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The UHI effect in Tirana is a serious problem that has an adverse effect on people's health, energy use, and the environment. This issue has to be resolved at this moment. The absence of green space, excessive building density, mobility, the usage of construction materials in urban patterns, and energy use all contribute to the UHI impact in Tirana. Increased green space, the use of reflecting surfaces, and the promotion of sustainable urban design are just a few of the proposed mitigating measures.

To investigate the efficacy of these mitigation techniques in the Tirana setting, additional research is required. Some of the mitigation strategies in order to reduce UHI effect in the city of Tirana could be the implementation of additional urban green spaces, water surfaces, green roofs, green facades, low solar absorption materials on pavements, facades, and streets, cool infrastructure, pollution absorber materials, electric or hydrogen mobility in order to reduce emissions (at the moment in Tirana 0.5% of the total amount of the vehicles are electric ones), and maximizing renewable energy sources, especially from the sun, earth (geothermal energy) and wind.

Among the potential developments of this research, further studies of Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) using software such as the urban climate modeling tool ENVI-met and land surface temperature records collected by Layer since 1970 may support further mid-scale assessments in urban areas. The latter will inform future research and policy efforts aimed at reducing the UHI effect in Tirana and other urban areas facing similar challenges.

Acknowledgments

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.3.pdf

The authors want to thank the Innovation Factory of POLIS University for lending the environmental detectors and Arch. Eneida Berisha and Dr. Blerim Nika for the advice.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 17-30

doi: 10.4028/p-cQzrG3

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-08-17

Revised:
2023-09-04

Accepted:
2023-09-04

Online:
2024-01-03

Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

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Klodjan Xhexhi , Besnik Aliaj

¹POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Tirana, Albania

POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Tirana, Albania

Keywords: lighting design, environmental lighting, hosplighting, illuminance level, Albanian lighting codes

Abstract

Hospitals must have adequate lighting so that medical personnel can do their duties and attend to the requirements of patients and visitors. A comfortable recuperation environment may be created with the aid of good lighting. The relationship between daylighting and artificial lighting and their role in the design process will be mentioned. Specific areas of the hospital will be under adequate lighting analysis. The areas taken into consideration are entrance and waiting areas, circulation areas, operating theatres and clean rooms, wards and bedrooms, ancillary areas, restaurant and kitchen, and exterior lighting. Some of these areas are also analyzed regarding the case study of the Military Hospital (University Trauma Hospital) of Tirana Albania.

The purpose of this paper is to compare different lighting standards, the EU standards, and the Albanian ones. Solutions can be provided for lighting systems, starting from luminaries and lamps, to lighting controls and lighting management systems, from the early stage of design. The architect is the enabling partner to develop meaningful lighting solutions for all areas of healthcare facilities.

Introduction

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The notion that the hospital setting affects recovery has recently gained popularity. Patient and staff happiness, patient period of stay, employee turnover, medical mistakes, infection rates, and eventually financial performance are all significantly improved by health facility design. Employing a method for controlling digital lighting is the most practical and effective manner of achieving ideal illumination.

Patients' healthcare experiences are enhanced by digital lighting control providing them certain influence over their surroundings. The lights can be turned off or turned on and can be set for reading, watching TV, or relaxing. As a result, patients feel at home and relaxed in their surroundings, which reduces their anxiety and raises their level of happiness.

Digital lighting control gives staff members the freedom to perform normal medical and housekeeping activities in more pleasant light settings or at higher brightness levels for patient examinations and medication delivery. Hospitals can take advantage of outside sunlight for energy savings and patient satisfaction by enhancing natural light. Digital lighting management, when combined with other facility design components like noise reduction and outside view, can create a hospital atmosphere attractive to the patients, keep users, and improve both the standard of treatment and the hospital's economic sector [1].

This article provides information on color usage and light in hospitals. The CIBSE Lighting Guide related to the "Hospitals and Healthcare Buildings" is mostly concentrated in public areas, such as lobbies, waiting rooms, bars, dining rooms, circulation areas, bedrooms, auxiliary spaces, hospital wards, and operating rooms [2].

Lighting may be either basic or quite complicated, depending on the visual process. It provides information about the world around us by producing a psychological experience that can provoke feelings of comfort, safety, enthusiasm, and many more. This psychological sensation can be created by deciding factors like a room's design, size, and color [3].

A lighting configuration should be efficient in terms of energy use as well as for human use. The importance of energy efficiency is rising. Utilizing energy-efficient lights, ballasts, and luminaries in conjunction with the right lighting controls may be very cost-effective and helpful in achieving energy goals. Either the appreciation for natural light or the efficiency of the power utilized for illumination are significant considerations. At the design stage, a good maintenance strategy should be created for both lighting and color.

There is some proof that the visual environment's design, regarding the balance of light and color, might improve users' well-being [4, 5]. In certain healthcare buildings, it has been revealed that the visual environment's quality has a positive outcome on staff productivity and patient recovery rates. But this design feature shouldn't be disregarded. The architect or the interior designer, (when one is hired), is in charge of the actual physical design of the structure. They may in turn hire a professional lighting designer and a color design consultant.

The psychological and emotional factors that might affect the health of patients should be taken into account when using color and design in users' accommodations. Providing a pleasant, friendly atmosphere that offers variety and attraction for clients and guests is one of the main goals.

Color may be utilized to manage reflected light, minimize glare, and maximize sunshine. The appropriate shade may remove fear and influence attitude. It has been demonstrated that people with mental health issues have extremely strong emotional responses to color [6].

The lighting design includes both electric and natural lights. The effectiveness of the users' performance on their tasks is correlated with the visual function and their capacity to make them feel comfortable.

Color plays a utilitarian and aesthetic role in altering the look of places, which contributes to the creation of a better atmosphere [7].

In order to provide varying brightness levels and perceived lightness, reflective materials are crucial in lighting design. Raising the brightness of a building's interior is significantly influenced by the materials' degree of reflection.

Maintenance is another important issue. It is needed to avoid as much as possible dirt, dust, and damage. Because of poor lighting maintenance or color scheme, money can be wasted, and also the efficiency of the environment.

The hospital involves a large number of occupants. Hospitals are often seen and perceived as stressful environments. According to a study related to patient recovery, the patients were sent home approximately 1.5 days earlier due to the change in the environment. The environment should be designed to facilitate connection with staff, also to the outside world [8].

The inner environment should provide confidentiality and privacy but some problems can be avoided, for instance, long corridors, and lack of seating. Color and lighting design can help the process. The choice of details such as landmarks, ornamentation, artwork, and interior landscape plays an important role too.

The elderly require more medical attention and must stay in the hospital for a longer period. They have specific visual needs for appropriate lighting and color design. A person's visual system changes with age in several ways [9, 10]. The eyes cannot focus to close range, retina receives less light, for instance, a 60 -year-old received about in terms of retinal illumination of what a 20 -year-old received. The elderly become less sensitive to the blue end of the spectrum. The eyes become inefficient in adapting [11]. People with cataracts seem to show many problems with glare and the reduction of the ability to see short wavelengths.

The use of ceiling for orientation and special perception, skirting floor, skirting wall, door handles, and frames for identifying doors are used to ensure a comfortable environment for the patients.

The wheelchair users need lighting low-level control. From a wheelchair's perspective, signage has to be well-lit. These places should appear as bright as possible using lighting and color [12].

The young people have also a particular requirement for lighting and color design. Premature babies are particularly sensitive to strong light, which can be stressful [5]. Young children pay significantly more attention to color and shape than to form.

According to Xhexhi, K. (2021) the natural illuminance level of a building depends on the area deepness, the dimensions of the openings, and the orientation of the building [13, 14, 15].

In another survey conducted by Ullah, Z. et al., (2023) were selected 124 public hospitals and their sustainability performance was compared by LEED. The results show high energy consumption, high costs, variable healthcare regulations, poor administration, poor planning, political meddling, insufficient workforce, and traditional architectural designs. The use of eco-friendly materials, techniques in construction, solar energy, enhancing hospital operations, raising sustainability awareness among the general population, preserving energy and water, and implementing sustainable garbage disposal and mobility is crucial in order to improve patient safety, security, lighting, acoustics, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, and access to economical healthcare services [16].

Daylighting

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The amount of natural daylight in an interior area is known as daylighting. There are some principles of good daylighting such as space geometry; windows and other apertures, including their position and orientation, and the interior surfaces' features.

There are a lot of surveys about windows [17] that showed the important role that they have. The window and the daylight are all the time in correlation with each other and of course in real harmony. People are very much interested in introducing the concept of the window in buildings. There are some benefits in certain cases such as sunlight provides healing and stimulating properties; access and communication to the outside world, particularly a viewpoint; sky-bound light which is typically preferred by humans compared to electric lights; fresh air that penetrates inside the building; windows can reduce the feeling of isolation and claustrophobia [18], and quicker recovery rate.

According to Ulrich [19] patients who can see trees heal quicker than those who can only see a stone or brick wall. According to the British Standard Code of Practice for daylighting, people like a view of trees, plants grass, and open spaces [20].

The window's size should be sufficient to offer an adequate view. There are some ratios regarding the external wall. If the window area is below the satisfactory view is ruined, and above of people are satisfied [21,22]. The most pleasant view includes the foreground, some view of the sky, or some trees. Small spaces without any view of the outdoors or any interaction with it might seem quite confining [23]. The lack of windows creates a consistent environment that might be monotonous and gloomy. The staying length of the patient is shortened and diagnostic and therapeutic outcomes are closely correlated with sufficient daylight [24, 25].

The need for privacy is different in different parts of the hospital, for instance, there is a relatively different proportion of privacy levels in wards and different in the consulting room. Some precautions that should be considered to provide better privacy are curtains or diffusing glazing.

The light from the sky is rather necessary for hospitals. It is profitable for the color rendering needed [26].

Some strategies are used for daylighting the building. Also, electric lighting control is essential. When there is enough natural light, the lighting may be diminished or turned off. It is needed to control the zones and daylighting demands. The designer must choose the shading devices and glazing properties of the materials. In hospitals, certain areas do not require sunshine and are situated in the core that is not illuminated by daylight. Light distribution in hospitals is very important; some of the examples have few areas, with some roof glazing. This could lead to excessive heat.

The window-to-wall ratio (WWR) cannot be ignored in reducing glare and enhancing patient visual comfort. Toodekharman, H. et al., (2023) conducted a simulation and revealed that the facade with WWR has a better overall performance [27]. Furthermore, according to another study conducted by Xhexhi, K. (2023), it was revealed that within a specific neighborhood of Tirana, built during the socialist period, WWR was and WFR (window-to-floor-ratio) was [28]. Origami is an excellent illustration, which influences the design of facades and has been extensively studied from the perspective of natural light and energy [29, 30].

The quantity of daylight in a space is based on the average daylighting factor DF . It is needed at least of DF to consider the day-lit. For the hospital spaces, the recommendation values are . If
the value passes through to , there is a danger of overglazing. The condition of the windows can also affect how much light penetrates a space. Especially for the high-level windows and roof lights maintenance is crucial. The deepness of the space plays also a crucial role in lighting design. If the area is very profound, the interior will appear dark compared to perimeter window lighting [31].

When taking into account the type of facade, Alzoubi et al., examined the Daylight Factor (DF) in the patient's room in a hospital. In this study, the simulations of the ideal condition and the current situation are compared. Due to indoor surfaces' greater reflection, the second one has higher internal illumination levels. The findings demonstrated that elements in interior design, including furniture and interior surfaces, had a direct impact on the brightness of indoor spaces [32].

By using models and field measurements, another study investigated the interior of the children's ward's daylighting quality at King Abdullah Hospital. Illuminance and brightness levels in the patient rooms to the south and north exceeded CIBSE requirements, necessitating shading of the hospital facade [33].

According to Longmore and Neeman's questionnaire [34], 91% of the people asked responded that sunlight for them was a pleasure. People prefer sunlight because it provides light and warmth. However, there are some circumstances when it is necessary to allow access to both sunlight and movable shade to prevent overheating and glare. For many hospitals internal curtains are one of the solutions. The material preferred for the shadings is metalized fabrics which reflect the extra solar heat.

It is important to mention also the Louvred blinds which give better control to sunlight and reduce glare effectively, particularly in non-cleaning areas. The use of the mid pane blinds is the most hygienic and proper choice. In the summer, the sun can be blocked by horizontal or vertical shade above windows, canopies, overhangs, and swings.

For instance, indirect glare can happen when the wall's brightness level is unacceptably high. By lowering the incident flow, the degree of contrast, and the brightness of the windows, one may regulate the penetration of natural light into the structure. Control mechanisms are crucial for reducing glare. There are many types of shading devices to be considered according to the demands of the users. These systems may consist of stationary or mobile external equipment [15], as seen in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Mechanisms of glare controlling. (Source: Xhexhi. K. 2023) [15].

Fig. 1. Mechanisms of glare controlling. (Source: Xhexhi. K. 2023) [15].

Lighting design

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.17.pdf

Some factors that influence directly lighting design are lighting appearance; task illumination; architectural integration; energy efficiency; lighting maintenance; and lighting cost [35, 36].

The visual environment enhances the user's feeling, but it also can affect the patient's recovery. The harsh lighting can stress the users while the appropriate lighting can improve their development, their sleep patterns and reduce retinal damage [37].

Task illuminance is another key factor. Is needed to have different solutions if the occupancy is elderly with perhaps poor sight, and if the patients are teenagers.

There are some specifications. For instance, for the circulation area (corridors night and day) the level of illuminance is 50-150lux, for the reading area the level of illuminance is 200-500lux, and for examination and treatment 500-750lux. The persons who benefit from the right level of light are more focused on the work, improving visibility.

Color representation is also very important in lighting design. The color of the surface is important to avoid errors [38]. For instance, lamps must render color in a good way. The strong saturated color must be avoided and controlled. The CIE general color-rendering index [2], sometimes known as Ra, can be used to define how the lamp renders colors. There is a maximum and a minimum on the Ra scale. Her maximum scale is 100 . In most of the hospitals, her values go up to 80 .

Good performances require the bypass of the glare and the discomfort. Glare problems can occur in daylight, especially in direct sunshine, and also combined with electric lighting.

Occupants would like to have a room according to their "visual interest". It is important to mention an example related to the degree of lightness in a restaurant. The equal amount of light and shadow in every area of the restaurant is often disliked by the customers. The brightness of the surface can determine the lighting appearance. There are admissible here, the walls, the furniture, the ceiling, etc. [39]. The walls will look gloomy if there is little light on the ceiling. It is needed to ensure that some walls receive partially direct sunlight otherwise there will not be enough perception of light and shadow.

Another element of lighting is the color appearance of lighting. There is a different range of colors, those that give a cool appearance and those that give a pleasant appearance. It is important to mention electric lamps, specifically fluorescent lamps. The color temperature is measured in degrees Kelvin (K) [2]. In some cases, in hospitals, it is usually preferred to use a lamp color that merges with daylight. For instance, a lamp with 4000 K is recommended [2] as seen in Table 1.

Table 1. Color temperature. (Author's elaboration).

Color temperature | 2500K | 2700K | 3000K | 3500K | 4000K | 6500K
| Extra warm white | Warm white | Warm white/white | White | Cool white | Daylight

The role of the designers in lighting system

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How does the architecture fit with all these problems? There are some responses which include: the style of lighting equipment (which respects the architectonic style), physical integration, incorporation of electrical wiring and electric illumination with daylighting, and meaningfulness to the light patterns.

Sometimes is necessary for the architect to change the level of the illuminance on different floors and different colors between the walls and the ceiling. Also, the architects operate with concealed lighting incorporated into the suspended ceilings. There is a risk here of interfering with the ductwork passing through the ceiling.

Another important point is the intersection of daylight and the optimum level of efficiency. The process should be controlled in order to have the best possible performance. The aim is to make the lighting part of the architecture. Energy efficiency has a direct relation with cost. The aim is to reduce as much as possible the use of electricity. According to another survey, if all the T12 fluorescent tubes were converted to T8, in a hospital, it is possible to have an annual saving of around 31,465 Euro [40]. This energy is calculated based on the amount of light produced and the energy it consumes. The lamp provides light and this light is measured in lumen and the energy that it consumes is measured in watts. In the end, the energy efficiency of the lamp is calculated in lumens per watt. The percentage of light that emerges for the luminaries in the desired direction is known as the lighting
output ratio (LOR) [2]. Nowadays exists some modern ballast that improves energy efficiency and operates at high frequency. Also, the users can use lamp-dimming facilities to improve energy efficiency. The architects and the engineers design the lighting installation in order to perform better [41]. For instance, the lighting close to the windows can be turned off, while the lighting farther away from the windows can be left on as needed. This is possible by the automatic controllers.

Lighting maintenance serves as a crucial function in the indoor area. It is strains related to the visual condition required.

If the luminaries become dirty, they lose the efficiency of their original reflective value. There will be some loss of the reflected light. So, it is needed to maintain a good level of care in order to satisfy the space's needs. Also, the replacement process should be performed correctly by ensuring that the proper type and color of lights are substituted. Some regulations do not allow performing the process of cleaning less than once per year, and in certain instances, more frequently, for sanitary reasons. The positions of the luminaries are very important, and they should be situated in an area that is simple to access [2]. Of course, the maintenance program should be supplied by the designers. It can reduce labor costs and minimize the potential disruption to hospital staff and patients. After being replaced, the lamps should either be disposed of in a landfill or recycled [42]. Also, the windows and the blinds need to be cleaned in order to perform better.

Unfortunately, often happens that lighting equipment is put in place at the end of a facility program. The lighting installation will last for about ten years maybe more. If there is no good lighting, the personnel won't be able to work effectively, and obviously, the patients' recuperation might deteriorate.

Hospitals' generic areas compared to the Military Hospital of Tirana

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Hospitals and healthcare buildings are complex. There will be a wide range of color and lighting needs for various regions of the building. Hospital areas are often organized into seven general categories.

General areas (entrance and waiting areas)

Circulation areas

Operation theatres and cleaning room

Wards and bedroom

Ancillary Areas

Restaurants/Kitchens

Exteriors

Entrance and waiting areas. The illuminance level should be around 300lux for the entrance and waiting areas. The colors of the interior must be attractive and relaxing. The journal of the patients starts and ends in this zone and the first impression is created here [43]. Often hospital buildings use glass and steel materials for the entrances, but because of their tendency to reflect light, some materials may be problematic. For instance, the visual comfort of users is greatly influenced by the nature of the glass [44]. There must be a clear line of sight to the front desk.

The hospital's front desk serves as the initial point of contact because of this, this region ought to be the brightest within the visual field. Lighting over the front desk should be placed between the client and the receptionist. However, the receptionist will work on a computer and so the light should suit this task too.

Three major categories may be used to categorize the electric lighting in the atrium: general illumination, lighting for planting, and decorative lighting. Meanwhile, in the waiting area, the level of illuminance should be around 200lux. Wall-mounted lighting can replace or supplement ceiling luminaires to give a domestic-type feeling.

According to Albanian standards, the illuminance level at the entrance should be 200lux [45]. The main entrance of the Military Hospital of Tirana is easy to find and marked with beacons which are not positioned at an accurate distance from each other as seen in Figure 2. The main entrance is also marked with mounted luminaries in order to receive bigger importance as seen in Figure 3.

Fig. 2. Outside beacons (Source: Authors).

Fig. 2. Outside beacons (Source: Authors).

Fig. 3. Entrance area and the wall-mounted luminaries (Source: Authors).

Fig. 3. Entrance area and the wall-mounted luminaries (Source: Authors).

Recently the Military Hospital of Tirana has faced a partial requalification. According to the expertise, the illumination level of the Military Hospital entrance is relatively low. It is difficult to measure without the right equipment but it is easy to observe the type of the luminaries. In order to have an accurate illuminance level it is needed to take some precautions such as putting in evidence the level of interaction between the users and the building. The reception area, lobby, and waiting areas have recently improved as seen in Figures 4A, B, and C. In order to feel comfortable and welcome in such zones, there is an urgent need for requalification that provides new spaces for sitting purposes for the occupants.

The concealed lighting is missing as also the lighting over the reception desk. The penetration of the daylight inside the building provides a good effect flowing in the area as seen in Figure 4C.

Fig. 4. A. Entrance area; B. Reception area; C. Lighting flowing in the corridor (Source: Authors).

Fig. 4. A. Entrance area; B. Reception area; C. Lighting flowing in the corridor (Source: Authors).

Circulation areas. Attention needs to be paid to this zone, regarding the corridor lighting and the proper lighting of direction signs. The position of the luminaries in the corridor area is another important issue. Generally, are preferred luminaries centrally mounted for better performance. Welllit corridor endpoints and emphasized direction changes should be used to draw attention to the route change. The circulation areas required lighting controls. Photoelectric switching can be used in stairwells and hallways that are illuminated during the day in order to utilize less electrical lighting during the day. Hospitals and healthcare buildings must have emergency escaping lighting [46, 47].

Corridors do not require a high level of illuminance generally between 150-200lux. The corridor appears wider due to the linear lighting that runs down it [43]. According to Albanian standards for residential and non-residential buildings, the illumination level for the corridors and stairs is 100lux [45]. Highly polished corridor flooring can cause a lot of reflected glare. In that case, a carpet is required. As the circulation area is often based on artificial light it is important to use high reflectivity and matt surfaces on walls and ceilings.

There are many suggestions to be underlined in such areas considering the Military Hospital of Tirana. First of all, the openings of the corridors to the outside seem to be very well designed. The natural integration to the courtyard, in order to avoid every type of silhouette as seen in Figure 5A is well considered. Some of the corridors do not receive natural light at all as seen in Figure 5B. It is observed that the floor level is high. Furthermore, the luminaries were mounted very high so their performance was low in terms of illumination.

Generally, the luminaries were centrally mounted. Some of the corridors lacked daylighting so the lamps were on all the time as seen in Figure 6A. It was a tendency to reduce the lack of daylight through some openings in the upper part of the door as seen in Figure 6B, C.

The materials used on the floor were rather reflective and also helped to reflect the light. The predominant color for the interior spaces was open green and white, and the color rendering was white (natural, 4000 K ). There are some different types of luminaries as shown in Figure 7. Generally, all the lamps were fluorescent ones, and a few of them were LED. In other words, it is known that LED lamps consume 20% less energy than fluorescent lamps and last longer, optimizing energy efficiency. Moreover, fluorescent lamps emit UV light.

Fig. 5. A. Lighting flowing in the corridor; B. Corridor without natural light (Source: Authors).

Fig. 5. A. Lighting flowing in the corridor; B. Corridor without natural light (Source: Authors).

Fig. 6. A. Central mounted luminaries; B.C. Opening in the upper part of the door (Source: Authors)

Fig. 6. A. Central mounted luminaries; B.C. Opening in the upper part of the door (Source: Authors)

Fig. 7. Different types of luminaries in the corridors (Source: Authors).

Fig. 7. Different types of luminaries in the corridors (Source: Authors).

Operation theatres and cleaning room. The highest level of illumination is required in the operation theatres around 10.000-100.000lux. According to the Albanian Standards, the illumination level in these areas should be minimally 1000lux [45]. Fully recessed, sealed, and fluorescent lights are used to provide lighting in these areas including digital dimming control gear. These luminaries are easily cleanable and also use lamps with clinical-quality color rendering. Approximately the same level of visibility is required also for the preparation and inspection of pharmaceuticals and laboratories. Also, the design of the luminaries is very important. They should have a few surface voids and attachment points where germs might gather.

Wards and bedroom. Any ward unit's illumination must be adequate for both the daytime and nighttime needs of the patient and the nursing staff. Ward generally has one to four beds. A sense of optimism should be present in a ward.

Wards often have sufficient natural illumination, however, in some circumstances, it can be required to take into account supplemental lighting for the regions further away from the windows.

Generally, the level of illuminance for this area should be around 500-1000lux (this is due to the fact that the patients are also subject to examination). According to Albanian standards for residential and non-residential buildings, the illumination level for the bedrooms is 150lux. These norms do not consider patients' examination [45]. Lighting at the bed head for reading should be around 300lux and the level of illuminance in sleeping hours should be 5-10lux. The surroundings and the balance between the brightness and colors will help to reduce glare, creating an attractive atmosphere.

Lighting designers may encounter unique challenges with ceiling heights between 2.7 and 3 meters, particularly in bedrooms, especially when the curtains surrounding each bed are drawn. The objective is to offer just the right amount of light for the medical team without disturbing the patient if they are attempting to go to sleep again. Solutions often involve using recessed lights in the ceiling, wall-mounted lights, or lights incorporated into bedhead trucking. For wall-mounted luminaires, 1.8 m is the recommended mounting height.

The bedrooms in the Military Hospital of Tirana were almost overpopulated. The very high floor level is not helpful for a good illuminance level. In this case, it is needed to mount the hanging luminaries and not the ceiling-mounted ones. Lighting in the bed heads was recently improved. Fabric shutters were positioned in the upper level of the window just to avoid the glare as seen in Figure 8. The windows are in general well dimensioned and collect as much as possible sunlight but in general vertical or horizontal shadings were missing.

Fig. 8. The bedrooms and the type of luminaries used (Source: Authors).

Fig. 8. The bedrooms and the type of luminaries used (Source: Authors).

Ancillary Areas. These areas are also very important for everyday activities. These areas require at least the minimum standards to be maintained. The illuminance level in these areas should be around 300-500lux. Different types of luminaires are used in the current example as seen in Figure 9.

Fig. 9. Ancillary Areas (Source: Authors).

Fig. 9. Ancillary Areas (Source: Authors).

Restaurants/Kitchens. Good lighting promotes safety and hygiene. For these areas, the color rendering should be around and with a color temperature below 4000 K , typically . The Albanian standard of illumination level for these areas is 200lux [45]. Despite certain sections in hospitals that serve very specialized purposes, others, such as support service areas like kitchens, laundries, offices, and stores, must be illuminated similarly to comparable spaces in other nonhealthcare structures [48].

Exteriors. The positions of outside lighting are very important also for the safety of the patients. The beacon positions should lead the pathway intersections, entrances, hazards, and changes in level. It is needed to consider the height of the luminaries, the ingress protection, the typology of light, the effectiveness of the lights, and the level of vandal resistance provided. Roads car parks, and entrances, all need adequate lighting and the road to the entrance should be correctly defined and lit. The designers should avoid areas in total darkness.

There is an existing courtyard inside the complex, a sort of atrium in the Military Hospital of Tirana. The daylight flows inside the green atrium. Each part of the working plan had good lighting received directly from the sun as seen in Figure 10. Generally, the internal courtyards provide a good amount of physiological tranquility. Meanwhile, during the night, the level of illuminance in that area is very low. Some precautions must be taken in order to improve the situation such as increasing the numbers of the beacons, and their positions, in order to receive approximately the same level of illuminance all over the courtyard.

Fig. 10. Courtyard inside the complex (Source: Authors).

Fig. 10. Courtyard inside the complex (Source: Authors).

Future Work

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.17.pdf

There are several issues to be addressed in order to obtain more information and data regarding the illuminance level in hospital facilities. Future work will be focused on direct measuring with specific instruments of illuminance level during the day in all the generic areas of the hospital. The data should be further elaborated and compared.

Virtual and software simulation should be engaged too, in order to observe and correct the illuminance level in specific areas. Hospitals must allow the flow of natural light in the interior, in order to satisfy the user's demands. This can be done from the early stage of the design or during reconstruction. Energy savings will be significant when the methods are put into practice.

Conclusion

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.17.pdf

In order to achieve the proper goals, designers must take into account the visual surroundings and make the proper use of color and lighting. The aim is to make the hospitals also a pleasant place to stay not just for the elderly but also for the very young generation. According to some surveys, the recovery rates increase if there are implemented daylighting and artificial lighting strategies. Generally, hospitals are very complex buildings. Energy efficiency in lighting is a crucial concern in order to reduce costs. The appropriate selection and use of luminaries can predict a lot of benefits. These operating expenses, simplicity of maintenance, staff efficiency, and patient recovery must be considered in the cost prediction. The designers must consider the color design and lighting at the earlier stage of design. There is a gap between Albania's Lighting Standards the European Lighting Standards. An adequate need for requalification is needed especially for the Military Hospital (University Trauma Hospital) of Tirana.

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The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.17.pdf

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 31-40

doi: 10.4028/p-gd7t1S

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-09-14

Revised:
2023-09-18

Accepted:
2023-09-18

Online:
2024-01-03

LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

Silvia Di Caro

¹Lighting Engineering Analyst, A2A Illuminazione Pubblica, Viale Sarca 235, Milano, Italia

silviadicaro@libero.it

Keywords: public lighting, smart city, environment, technology, energy saving

Abstract

This chapter explores the evolution of public lighting, tracing its historical development from the early days of illumination to contemporary times. It highlights the contemporary significance of public lighting in meeting regulatory standards for illumination, emphasizing the fundamental role of LED technology. LED technology not only ensures compliance with lighting regulations but also significantly reduces network power consumption, thereby mitigating environmental pollution compared to traditional discharge lamps. Furthermore, this chapter underscores the transformative shift in the role of modern lighting systems, which have evolved into multifunctional hubs for the integration of value-added services. These services encompass a wide range of applications, including surveillance cameras, smart parking systems, and electric vehicle charging stations, thereby enhancing the overall functionality and sustainability of urban environments.

Introduction

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The concept of public lighting, as it is known today, may seem relatively recent, but its origins can be traced back to ancient practices where certain parts of significant structures were illuminated using torches or braziers, providing continuous nighttime illumination. However, it wasn't until later centuries that the idea of illuminating entire cities came into existence.

Two pioneering cities in this regard were London and Paris. In 1417, Sir Henry Barton, the Mayor of London, issued a directive that lanterns should be hung on winter evenings between All Saints and Candlemas, marking one of the earliest recorded instances of a city attempting public lighting. Paris followed suit with an ordinance in 1524, instructing its residents to keep lights on in their windows for the sake of public safety.

Initially, these early "lampposts" relied on various oils such as olive, fish, walnut, and even whale oil for illumination, a practice that persisted until the latter half of the eighteenth century [1]. The subsequent era saw the emergence of gas fuels, which gained popularity around 1800.

As time progressed and technology advanced, gas fuels were gradually phased out in favor of electrical lighting systems. The adoption of electricity was propelled by its ease of use, the consistency of light it offered, and the rapid advancements in the electrical industry, which made it possible to bring electric power to virtually every corner of cities [2].

With the ongoing evolution of technology, new types of lighting sources emerged, classified according to the substances responsible for emitting light radiation. Among these, incandescent lamps and LED lamps belong to the family of solid-state lighting sources, while discharge lamps fall under the category of gaseous sources [3]. These sources exhibit distinct characteristics, including differences in average operating life, color temperature, luminous efficiency, and time required to reach full brightness upon activation.

In the following sections, the chapter will delve into the complex details of the technological and environmental facets that render LED technology exceptionally attractive within the domain of public lighting.

Furthermore, it will explore how contemporary public lighting systems can be strategically leveraged to cater to the burgeoning landscape of Smart City technologies and the incorporation of value-added services. This endeavor is facilitated by their extensive deployment throughout urban landscapes, serving as a foundational infrastructure for the integration of innovative urban solutions.

Methodology and Structure

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

This chapter unfolds as a systematic exploration divided into three fundamental sections, each contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter:

Environmental context.

In this initial section, the contribution provides an in-depth overview of the prevailing environmental conditions on a global scale. By examining the broader environmental landscape, with the aim to contextualize the importance of sustainable approaches in various sectors, including public lighting.
2. Sources in public lighting: a focus on LED technology.

The second section focuses on the sources of illumination used in public lighting, delving into the various technologies employed, with particular emphasis on LED technology. This investigation reveals how LED lighting aligns with the core principles of economic, environmental, and social sustainability, making it a crucial component in the evolution of public illumination.
3. Value-added systems and beyond.

The final section expands the horizons of public lighting beyond its conventional role, exploring the integration of value-added systems within modern lighting infrastructure. This discussion highlights that public lighting is evolving beyond its traditional purpose of merely illuminating streets; it is now becoming an integral system capable of elevating cities to new heights of technological advancement, safety, and functionality.

In essence, this analysis aims to demonstrate that public lighting is undergoing a transformative shift. It is no longer limited to its historical role but is emerging as a complex system with the potential to significantly enhance urban living. By embracing sustainable technologies such as LED lighting and incorporating value-added systems, public lighting is contributing to make our cities more resilient, smart, and efficient, redefining its purpose in the modern urban landscape.

Environmental Context

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

The complex network of gases that accumulates in Earth's atmosphere, influencing its energy balance, is commonly referred to as "greenhouse gases". This phenomenon is responsible for the greenhouse effect, which plays a significant role in sustaining life on our planet. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature would plummet to a frigid -18 degrees Celsius, in stark contrast to the present 15 degrees Celsius.

To understand this, it is essential to understand how the Earth interacts with incoming solar radiation. Approximately of solar energy is reflected and radiated back into space, not breaching the limits of our atmosphere. About of this energy is absorbed by the atmosphere during its journey towards the Earth's surface, while another is reflected by surfaces such as glaciers and deserts. The remaining is absorbed by our oceans and continents.

Crucially, the heat absorbed by the atmosphere is not entirely lost; instead, it is re-radiated in all directions, with a portion returning to the Earth's surface, further warming it. Greenhouse gases play a fundamental role in this process by trapping some of this heat, effectively acting as a thermal blanket. Consequently, an elevated concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contributes to a rise in the global average temperature [4].

The primary greenhouse gases of concern include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide. While these gases occur naturally in the atmosphere in limited quantities, human activities have significantly increased their presence since the early 20th century. It is worth noting that water vapor is also present in the atmosphere, but its impact on human-induced climate change is less significant, as its absorption capacity is closely tied to temperature fluctuations [5].

Today, we are confronted with sobering statistics: there is a probability that global average temperatures will surpass above pre-industrial levels between 2023 and 2027. These five years
are expected to be the warmest on record, with a certainty, underscoring the cumulative effects of global warming [6].

The factors contributing to climate change are multifaceted, originating from a multitude of human activities. These include extensive deforestation, intensive livestock farming, and the application of specific fertilizers and other gases. Of particular significance is the release of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, which exerts a substantial influence on the acceleration of global warming.

A mere 5% of power plants across the globe bear the weight of responsibility for nearly threequarters (73%) of the CO2 emissions produced from electricity generation on a global scale. These startling findings emerged from a comprehensive study conducted by a team from the University of Colorado Boulder, led by sociology professor Don Grant, member of the university's Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute [7].

These findings make it clear the profound impact that reduced energy consumption can have on environmental preservation by curbing carbon dioxide emissions.

When we think about energy-intensive systems, one that immediately comes to mind is public lighting. Public lighting systems are prevalent in urban and suburban areas, and their daily energy consumption is influenced by several critical factors. The number of installed lamps, the duration of their operation each day, the level of regulation applied, and the type of light source and technology employed all play a significant role in determining energy consumption. These systems are a substantial contributor to overall energy usage in many regions, playing a pivotal role in promoting environmental sustainability and energy conservation, especially within the broader context of Smart City technologies.

For the purpose of energy analysis, the following parameters are considered:
The conversion factor for calculating consumption, expressed in tons of oil equivalent (TOE), is (Refer to Resolution EEN 3/08 of the Authority for Electricity and Gas, dated 28 March 2008).

For calculating CO2 emissions, the coefficient is , as indicated by ISPRA in the document "Indicators of efficiency and decarbonization of the national energy system and the electricity sector", Report 343/2021, Table 2.25, labeled "Emission factors of national electricity production and electricity consumption (g CO2/kWh)", under the "Electricity consumption" column.

Sources in public lighting: a focus on LED technology

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

The efficiency of a lamp is defined as the ratio between the flux emitted by the lamp and the power absorbed. Therefore, as the flux increases and the power decreases, the result will be to obtain a higher efficiency of the lamp.

Below is a comparison between oil lamps, light bulb lamps, fluorescent lamps, and LEDs [8]. The difference that exists between these sources does not only concern the aspect relating to efficiency but also that relating to the duration of the source, the color temperature, and the directionality of the luminous flux.

The table below illustrates the sources used for lighting fixtures and are arranged in increasing order of useful life. The table also shows the efficiency, color temperature, CRI and lamp burn time. LED technology has the longest useful life, one of the greatest efficiencies, the possibility of choosing between different color temperatures, a CRI that can reach very high values, it is directional and instantaneous ignition [9].

Therefore, it turned out to be very advantageous from different points of view to choose a LED technology.

As highlighted in the previous paragraph, to try to mitigate the anthropic phenomena that cause the emission of greenhouse gases, it is important to reduce the quantity of pollutants dispersed in the air. Hence, being able to obtain adequate levels of street lighting, with a given flow and reducing the power absorbed by the network is essential.

Furthermore, the definition of the lighting project applied to the peculiarities of the territorial context must be carried out by punctually defining the aesthetic typologies and the characteristics of the lighting fixtures which must be suitable for each single street or square. This is to ensure design quality also from an aesthetic point of view as well as from an environmental point of view.

In fact, it is possible to identify different types of lighting fixtures, with different aesthetic shapes. There are multiple solutions that aim to enhance each territorial context. Every consideration that underlies every single project must be examined for perfect harmony with the existing urban planning, also considering the architectural constraints.

The interventions that must be foreseen within a public lighting system redevelopment project must therefore be defined in compliance with the state of the places and must include solutions aimed at fitting into the specific urban area concerned.

It must be ensured that there is no negative impact on the environment in any way. On the contrary, the aim of the project must be to reduce direct glare, to improve the quality of light, to guarantee control of the luminous flux in terms of directionality and quantity of light emitted and therefore to minimize the dispersion of light towards areas different from the work plan.

Fig. 1. Comparison of light sources performance [3]

Fig. 1. Comparison of light sources performance [3]

CLO technology

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

CLO, which stands for Constant Light Output [10], represents an ingenious system devised to counteract the natural decline in luminous flux that occurs over time, as well as to prevent excessive brightness during the initial stages of luminaire operation.

As lighting sources age, their luminous flux tends to diminish due to various factors, including the accumulation of dirt on the cover glass. The innovative CLO system, however, offers a solution by ensuring a consistent flux output from the source throughout its operational life. The underlying principle involves running the fixture at a lower current during its initial stages and gradually increasing it over time, thereby maintaining a constant flux.

This technology provides a multitude of benefits. It ensures a uniform level of illumination over an extended period, thus guaranteeing the long-term performance and longevity of the LED module. Even, it results in reduced power consumption from the electrical grid, leading to significant economic savings and substantial environmental advantages.

Operating the luminaire at lower power levels also contributes to reducing emissions and lowers TOE (tons of oil equivalent) consumption, with a positive impact on the environment [11].

Switchable white light

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

To ensure nighttime urban safety, it is necessary and essential for inhabited areas to be equipped with artificial lighting. However, artificial lighting could pose a threat to ecosystems. In fact, both fauna and flora are strongly influenced by the natural alternation of light and dark, as this cycle
regulates and governs vital behaviors: nourishment, reproduction, sleep-wake rhythm, and protection from predators. [12]

Therefore, when designing a public lighting system it is essential to take the environmental aspect into consideration from various points of view: ensuring that the streets are safe for pedestrians and vehicles; minimizing environmental pollution by using light sources that are as efficient as possible; preserving the environment by protecting local fauna and flora by installing lighting systems only where strictly necessary.

According to some studies, blue light appears to be harmful to ecosystems as unfortunately, it produces high levels of light pollution, and has a significant environmental impact. This type of light increases glare and compromises human vision; this especially concerns the eyes of the elderly. Light using short wavelengths also disproportionately increases skyglow. In addition, blue light has an increased tendency to affect living organisms by disrupting biological processes that rely on natural cycles of light and dark, such as the circadian rhythm. A modest improvement in the efficiency of outdoor lighting dramatically increases the environmental damage caused by artificial light.

Human visual sensitivity is mostly concentrated in the green and yellow parts of the spectrum. The color of the light emitted by the first LEDs was typically bluish ( 5,500 Kelvin), but now, with technological progress, there are sources with very warm color temperatures [13].
Indeed, some manufacturers of LED lighting fixtures have developed systems that allow you to program the lighting fixture by changing the color temperature during the evening and at night based on the effect you intend to achieve.

Some are designed for the integration of timers, remote control devices, or sensors for detecting the external environment, useful for reducing the intensity of the light in conditions of low traffic or good visibility. Other products allow you to alternate a very warm light with reduced blue content , which protects flora and fauna, to a warm light with moderate blue content (CCT = 3000 K ), which improves human visual performance when traffic is heaviest [14].

Discussion

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Value-added systems and beyond

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

Remote control and smart city. There are technological systems that allow public lighting systems to be controlled remotely.
Remote control systems can be divided into two macro-categories: switchboard or "stand-alone" remote control systems and point-to-point remote control systems.

Both have the function of remotely controlling and managing the public lighting system. The purposes are multiple and concern the monitoring and management of the single luminaire: it is possible to detect any malfunctions of the system; it is possible to monitor energy consumption; it is possible to manage any faults directly remotely; and it is possible to regulate the flow of the luminaires up to the point of commanding their shutdown. The substantial difference between the two systems lies in the fact that the standalone remote control requires the installation of a panel device that allows remote management of the entire circuit to which the lighting complexes belong.

The point-to-point remote control also provides for the installation of a node on the single fixture, which allows the remote management of the single light point, which can therefore be controlled and managed remotely independently of the other lighting fixtures that are subject to the circuit.
Installing point-to-point remote control in the centers of greater aggregation can be a plus because, in organizing events such as open-air cinema, it is necessary to switch off the lighting systems that interfere with the projections for a specific time.

This operation in a non-telemanaged system can only be carried out by physically modifying the circuit and installing dedicated timer clocks. On the other hand, with point-to-point remote control, it is possible to regulate the flow of a single device, regardless of the shape of the line, up to total shutdown without making physical changes to the lines, directly remotely. This makes it possible to considerably reduce intervention times and costs and considerably simplify the operations to be carried out on the system.

Furthermore, point-to-point remote control can be easily implemented for the creation of adaptive lighting, which allows automatic regulation of lighting based on the presence or absence of users, thanks to the simple installation of detection systems. This system guarantees the most suitable lighting in real time and saves further energy and related costs, reducing waste and emissions while still providing an efficient and reliable service.

With "adaptive public lighting", we mean those innovative solutions capable of redeveloping and enhancing cities, making them increasingly comfortable, intelligent, and economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable. The goal is to offer a valuable service to citizens: providing the right amount of light in the right place and at the right time allows you to reduce waste and rightly save the environment; always having safety first (keeping high visibility at night); and the enhancement and redevelopment of urban spaces [15].

The remote-control systems allow operators to monitor consumption and any operating anomalies that may arise. It is interesting to underline that the traffic management service (adaptive traffic control) can be implemented on these systems with the aim of making the roads and, consequently, travel safer. It is possible to distinguish between TAI and FAI.

TAI is the acronym for Traffic Adaptive Installation, in which the operating lighting category is chosen based on sampling the hourly traffic flow only. This is a step forward compared to the existing situation in which the luminous flux is reduced at a given hour based on traffic statistics, but in any case, it is linked to the lighting engineering categories and their variation steps. To operate this regulation, a traffic meter is sufficient for each lane, and based on the sampling of the same, an algorithm raises or lowers the operating lighting category.

FAI stands for Full Adaptive Installation. In this case, both a traffic sensor and a lane luminance sen sor are required, which allow you to sample the luminance of the road surface or the illuminance and the weather conditions and then act accordingly. In this case, the real difference is the overcoming of the barrier of the plastered lighting categories because, at any moment, there is perfect knowledge of the operating parameters, and depending on the weather conditions, the system can be made to react. The FAI solution is the first real technological step forward in lighting (next and future) that the champions of eco-sustainable lighting have been waiting for several years now [16].

Analyzing a case study, 90 remote control devices and two environmental sensors were installed in the Municipality of Rimini to collect updated and reliable information. IoT systems empower the comprehensive collection of data pertaining to various aspects of road infrastructure. This includes functions such as monitoring the ambient lighting conditions on the road surface, capturing the luminous flux emitted by individual light points, recording traffic volume, measuring noise levels, and tracking the inclination of the poles supporting each light point.

Additionally, these systems facilitate continuous air quality monitoring through the deployment of a specialized control unit equipped with cutting-edge electrochemical sensors. These sensors make it possible for the real-time detection and quantification of four distinct gas types, such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and ozone (O3), leveraging innovative experimental technology to ensure precise and continuous air quality assessment.

Overall, the implementation of control systems for public lighting on busy main roads has achieved a remarkable reduction in energy consumption. Simultaneously, these systems enable continuous data collection and the analysis of statistical information regarding hourly and daily traffic conditions as well as vehicle types. This invaluable data serves as the foundation for the development of innovative strategies aimed at curbing urban pollution [15].

The original function of the street lighting pole, of course, was to support one or more lighting fixtures. In a medium-sized city, there are thousands of street lighting poles. In Italy, municipalities own at least 7 million of the estimated 9 million lighting poles. Inherently, the public lighting electricity network is estimated at around .

With the remote management of the lighting systems through the luminaire, pole, and electricity grid systems and taking advantage of the strong widespread presence of the systems within the territories, it was possible to: receive alarms and electrical measurements; command switching on
and off; remotely adjust the flow of centralized or punctual lighting; and better plan management and maintenance through remote diagnostics.

Therefore, taking advantage of the strong presence of the systems in the area, the intention is to expand the services offered to the citizenry, which do not only concern lighting but also weather conditions, environmental analyses, traffic situations, and critical situations such as accidents, weather alerts, emergencies, etc. It is also possible to install video surveillance cameras, parking sensors, or pole charging systems on the poles [17].

The project of electric recharging from light poles led to the creation of 800 recharging points in Berlin. The light poles use Ubitricity's "Heinz" charger, which was specially developed for the German market.

The existing infrastructure is exploited to allow citizens who do not have private parking (about of drivers) to recharge their cars comfortably close to home. For this reason, the project only takes residential areas into consideration, considering the capacities of the existing network [18].

Charging of electric cars from poles. The electric recharging project utilizing light poles has resulted in the establishment of 800 recharging points in Berlin. These light poles are equipped with ubitricity's specialized "Heinz" charger, designed specifically for the German market.

This initiative strategically leverages existing infrastructure to provide convenient car recharging options for citizens residing in areas without private parking facilities, a demographic comprising approximately of drivers. Accordingly, the project focuses exclusively on residential areas, taking into account the capacity of the existing network [18].
Accessing charging stations within the city can sometimes pose challenges, as the number of such stations, while steadily increasing, still falls short of meeting the growing demand. In this context, the collaboration between Siemens and Ubitricity, with the support of Westminster city council, is particularly noteworthy. This partnership has transformed 24 streetlamps along London's Sutherland Avenue into charging points compatible with the Type 2 standard, offering power ranging from 3 to 22 kW in direct current.

The concept of implementing such pole charging systems in urban environments carries numerous advantages and benefits. These lighting complexes can serve the dual purpose of illuminating streets and facilitating the recharging of electric or hybrid vehicles.

Consequently, the widespread adoption of these systems could incentivize the population to invest in electric cars, particularly in regions facing a shortage of dedicated recharging columns. Moreover, owners of electric or hybrid vehicles may be encouraged to choose holiday destinations where recharging infrastructure is readily available.

Smart Parking. Smart parking, an innovative approach to optimizing parking, has garnered considerable attention as an integral component of the broader Smart City concept.

It stands at the crossroads of technology and innovation, aiming to streamline the often chaotic and time-consuming process of finding and securing parking spaces while delivering substantial economic and environmental benefits to urban environments.

Smart parking systems operate through continuous monitoring of parking space availability, occupancy status, and vehicle stay durations.

This monitoring relies on sophisticated algorithms driven by computer vision and deep learning, which analyze images captured by strategically placed cameras or sensors. Remarkably, these systems maintain an accuracy rate exceeding 99%, even in adverse weather conditions, making them highly reliable.

The process begins with images being captured by standard cameras and transmitted to a central server. Flexibility exists to determine the intervals at which this image processing occurs. Alternatively, employing cameras with integrated embedded PCs, such as the LTM sensor, enables on-site data processing. Subsequently, data is transmitted to the electrical panel via the existing narrowband network within the public lighting infrastructure and then forwarded to the server through a broadband device.

The single-camera coverage capacity varies based on parking area layouts, typically encompassing 20 to 30 parking spaces. To monitor larger areas effectively, additional modules can be installed. These systems offer real-time data, forecasting capabilities, and the identification of vehicles parked in unauthorized zones.

One of the most apparent advantages of smart parking systems is their ability to alleviate traffic congestion. By efficiently directing drivers to available parking spaces, these systems reduce the time spent searching for parking, thus decreasing traffic congestion and associated emissions. This not only benefits drivers but also contributes to a cleaner and more sustainable urban environment.

Beyond traffic reduction, smart parking systems yield economic and environmental advantages. Drivers expend less fuel and time searching for parking, resulting in reduced fuel consumption and lower greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, these systems minimize idling time, leading to reductions in air and noise pollution and ultimately enhancing urban air quality and residents' quality of life.

From a financial perspective, smart parking systems offer revenue-generation potential for municipalities. They enable efficient parking management through mechanisms like parking fees and fines, increasing municipal revenue streams. Moreover, maintenance costs associated with traditional parking infrastructure, such as parking meters, are substantially reduced.

For citizens, smart parking translates into cost savings. Lower fuel consumption reduces expenses, and less time spent searching for parking enhances convenience. The time saved can be redirected toward more productive activities, enhancing the overall urban experience.

Smart parking solutions are not one-size-fits-all; they can be adapted to meet the different needs of various urban environments. In residential areas, these systems assist residents in finding parking near their homes conveniently, alleviating the stress of hunting for a parking spot after a long day. Commercial areas benefit from optimized parking solutions that cater to shoppers and tourists, driving local businesses and tourism.

Beyond immediate advantages, the implementation of smart parking systems aligns with the strategic goals of cities aspiring to become smart cities. These systems contribute to data collection and analysis, providing insights into traffic patterns, parking utilization, and urban mobility. Such data informs city planning and infrastructure development, leading to more efficient urban designs and transportation systems.

In conclusion, smart parking systems represent a significant step forward in urban mobility and sustainability. Their ability to reduce traffic congestion, emissions, and stress while increasing convenience for residents and visitors alike makes them a valuable addition to cities worldwide. As urbanization continues to expand, the adoption of smart parking solutions becomes increasingly critical for creating more livable, efficient, and environmentally friendly urban environments.[19]

Findings and Conclusions

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

In light of the significance to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and avoid disruptions to the global climate, it becomes imperative to conceive systems that ensure comfort while concurrently upholding environmental preservation.

For this reason, it is necessary to think about all those energy-intensive and inefficient systems that are widely spread across the territory, such as public lighting systems, to carry out a global redevelopment. To do this, it is possible to use LED technology, which allows us to ascertain energy savings that are a function of what is installed.

LEDs are considered the most efficient sources as they can convert over 50 percent more electrical power (watts) into light (lumens) compared to sodium lamps, thus significantly lowering both the cost and consumption of energy. electric energy. Utilizing these systems results in economic, energy, and environmental savings, as they draw less power from the network compared to high-pressure sodium, low-pressure sodium, or even mercury sources while emitting the same light output.

Additionally, the LED plate offers several advantages, including instant activation, long-lasting performance, adjustable color temperature to suit specific project requirements, and precise directional control, ensuring the light is focused precisely where needed, such as on the street in the
case of street lighting. Therefore, there are no components that are directed towards the celestial vault, and this allows, in addition to saving energy by avoiding unnecessary waste, not to create light pollution.

In this way, it is possible to avoid the unnecessary alteration of the natural nocturnal ambient lighting and therefore "any direct radiation of light outside the areas to which it is functionally dedicated, and in particular towards the celestial vault".

Moreover, this innovative technology exhibits remarkable versatility. It enables the adjustment of LED lamp output by a specified percentage during nighttime, and this can be achieved through autonomous systems or remote control, either across the entire network from a central panel or individually for each lighting fixture via point-to-point remote control.

Since point-to-point remote control can be easily implemented for the creation of adaptive lighting, it is possible to obtain further energy savings as this system allows the automatic adjustment of the lighting based on the presence or absence of users, thanks only to the installation of system detection. This system guarantees the most suitable lighting in real time and allows you to save further energy and related costs, reducing waste and emissions while still providing an efficient and reliable service.

By "adaptive public lighting," we mean those innovative solutions capable of redeveloping and enhancing cities, making them increasingly comfortable, intelligent, and economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable. The objective is to offer a valuable service to citizens: providing the right amount of light in the right place and at the right time allows us to reduce waste and safeguard the environment, always putting safety first (keeping visibility at night), and enhancing and redeveloping urban spaces.

A public lighting fixture with an LED source can be equipped with a CLO system (constant light output). This system, created to compensate for the depreciation of the luminous flux over time, prevents excessive lighting from occurring at the beginning of the useful life of the lighting fixture's installation and insufficient lighting at the end of the useful life of the lighting fixture's installation. lighting fixture.

Remote control systems allow operators to monitor consumption and any operating anomalies that may occur remotely and to intervene in the field only if necessary. It is interesting to underline that the traffic management service can be implemented on these systems with the aim of making the roads and, consequently, travel with the TAI or FAI systems safe.

The Traffic Adaptive Installation simplifies luminous flux adjustments. Equipping the public lighting system with a traffic meter for each lane allows an algorithm to modulate the operating lighting category based on the collected traffic data.

With full adaptive installation, however, both a traffic sensor and a luminance sensor per lane are required, which allows you to sample the luminance of the road surface or the illuminance and weather conditions and therefore act accordingly. The FAI solution is the first real technological step forward in lighting that the champions of eco-sustainable lighting have been waiting for for several years now.

In recent years, lighting solutions have played an essential role in the transformation of cities into smart cities. This process will continue in the coming years, supported by the increasingly widespread availability of wireless connection systems and industrial Internet of Things (IoT) devices, which represent two key elements in most smart city strategies around the world.

Furthermore, taking advantage of the capillarity of the lighting systems present in the territories, it is also possible to exploit these systems for the installation of surveillance cameras, wi-fi systems, smart parking systems, and pole charging systems for electric cars.

The lighting complexes would be used not only to illuminate the road but also, for example, to charge electric or hybrid cars. This would encourage the population to purchase electric cars. In many countries, in fact, there is a shortage of columns dedicated to charging electric or hybrid cars, resulting in a reduction in the level of emissions of pollutants concentrated in cities.

Smart parking systems, combining technology and innovation, would make it easier to find a parking space, therefore reducing emissions of pollutants but also bringing benefits in terms of time
and space. This would therefore be an advantage both from the citizen's point of view and from the point of view of the public administration for monitoring car parking in the city.

Public lighting will therefore no longer have the sole purpose of making the streets illuminated but will be a system that can be exploited to make cities more technologically advanced, safe, and functional.

References

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.31.pdf

F. Freschi. Dizionario di igiena pubblica e di polizia sanitaria ad uso dei medici e dei magistrati dell'ordine amministrativo... del dottore Francesco Freschi... G. Favale; (1857).

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Chapter 2

Innovative Approach in Contemporary Architecture

The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-8/978-3-0364-1230-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 43-61

doi: 10.4028/p-VPN0Le

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-08-21

Revised:
2023-09-14

Accepted:
2023-09-14

Online:
2024-01-03

Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.43.pdf

Santina Di Salvo

POLIS University, Rruga Bylis 12, Tirana, Albania

santina_disalvo@universitetipolis.edu.al

Keywords: 3D printing, housing crisis, environment, sustainability, architectural technology

Abstract

This chapter explores the most recent trends and challenges stemming from the integration of 3D printing within the architectural sector. The rapid evolution of additive manufacturing has brought forth innovative design possibilities, parametric modeling and sustainable material exploration. The discussion provides insights into available 3D printing technologies and methodologies for fabricating architectural products or designs, along with the advantages and challenges that must be addressed to get maximum benefits. To achieve this goal, case studies and current research are examined, with a specific focus on ongoing issues related to housing and environmental needs. Through an analysis of these developments, this contribution highlights the dynamic landscape where technology and architecture intersect, underscoring the necessity of collaborative approaches to fully realize the continuously improving and more sustainable efficiency of 3D printing in shaping the future of the construction field.

Introduction

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The origins of 3D printing can be traced back to 1986 when Chuck Hull patented the concept of stereolithography, a process based on photopolymerization that converts liquid materials into solid polymers through curing with a light source [1]. This breakthrough technology paved the way for the improvement of various 3D printing techniques, including Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) which are additive manufacturing technologies that have contributed to significant advancements in various industries by providing efficient and cost-effective solutions for rapid prototyping, customization, and small-scale production. The choice of technology always depends on factors such as the required material properties, component complexity and production volume [2].

The additive manufacturing (AM) process concerns adding materials layer by layer until the object is fully constructed, as opposed to subtractive production methods where material is removed to shape the final object [3]. Considered an innovative technology, 3D printing has become an integral part of the fourth industrial revolution, characterized by advancements in digitalization and automation. The Western European market has particularly embraced 3D printing technology, with substantial growth witnessed in recent years. According to International Data Corporation (IDC), a leading provider of market intelligence, the Western Europe market reached billion in 2019, growing at a staggering , outperforming the global average. According to Global Market Insights, the global 3D printing market is expected to experience significant growth in the next few years. The market size is expected to reach approximately billion by 2032, up significantly from billion in 2022. This growth trajectory indicates a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of during the forecast period from 2023 to 2032 [4].

In addition, 3D printing significantly impacts research and education by providing researchers, scientists, and students with the ease to prototype experimental models, scientific instruments, and teaching aids. It promotes hands-on learning, stimulates creativity, and opens up new possibilities for interdisciplinary collaboration and exploration. Factors driving the growth of the 3D printing market include advancements in materials and technology, expanding applications in healthcare, automotive, aerospace, consumer goods sectors and the growing focus on product innovation.

This trend is reflecting the increasing adoption of 3D printing across construction industries, even in the architectural and design context, since companies recognize that the rise of 3D printing over traditional production methods can be attributed to several advantages [5]:

Primarily, 3D printing technology facilitates structural innovation by enabling the construction of intricate shapes and structures that were previously unattainable through conventional manufacturing methods. [6]. Secondly, enhanced flexibility emerges in the management of construction sites located in underserved areas or densely populated urban centers. Sustainability is another key aspect of 3D printing technology in architecture and design. By employing 3D printing, the amount of processing waste is significantly reduced, also improving the utilization of local materials according to the circular economy principles. Additionally, this technology facilitates the use of bioplastics and recycled materials, effectively reducing the carbon footprint linked to the building process.
Safety is improved as 3D printing reduces noise, dust and construction site risks through efficient management and minimized overlap [7].

Furthermore, speed allows for rapid prototyping and production of architectural and design products, optimizing material usage and streamlining project timelines [8]
3D printing guarantees a high level of accuracy by directly translating information from the project's 3D model to construction operations. This presents an additional advantage in reducing the likelihood of errors and assuring greater precision in detailing.

Methodology and Structure

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.43.pdf

This chapter presents a structured analysis that spans three essential sections:
A broad overview on specific literature review with the aim of delivering relevant information about the evolution and applications of 3D printing in the building sector. The section offers an extensive overview of pertinent literature, delving into the evolution of 3D printing within the building sector. Additionally, it examines the diverse range of applications of 3D printing, spanning from rapid prototyping to intricate architectural designs and sustainable construction practices. The intention behind this is to equip readers with a strong foundational understanding of the multifaceted contributions that 3D printing technology makes to sustainable construction practices.

Examining selected best practices in alignment with recent research findings, the analysis concentrates on design methodologies, structural feasibility, and material properties. This is all conducted with the overarching objective of presenting sustainable housing solutions.

A discussion with case studies and an evaluation of practices aimed at understanding to what extent 3D printing can offer a valuable contribution to addressing the increasing housing crisis in critical contexts, while maintaining sustainability principles.

Literature Review

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In the early 2010s, researchers primarily focused on developing the fundamental principles of 3D printing for applications in the building sector.

A micro-architecture example. In 2008, D-Shape founder Enrico Dini revolutionized the construction industry by inventing a prototype large-format 3D printer using binder jetting [9].

Specifically, this process mimics the chemical-physical processes involved in the geodynamics of rock formation. The 3D printer works continuously, depositing textured ink onto the sand, forming the object through jets of microdroplets of material, gradually giving it a textured shape, taking approximately 24 hours for the solidification process for each section. The main goal of this innovative technology was to create a trabecular bone structure that could be applied in architectural design and resembled the structural organism of human bone. Collaborating with D-Shape, Andrea Morgante of Shiro Studio designed the Radiolaria Pavilion, a lightweight structure out of magnesiumbased materials inspired by the intricate geometries found in the skeletons of microscopic marine organisms with silica shells [10]. Serving as a micro-architecture experiment, the Radiolaria Pavilion, aimed to demonstrate and test the potential of additive manifacturing, employing advanced digital
design and fabrication systems (Fig. 1a, 1b). Among the most prominent figures in the field of 3D printing, Behrokh Khoshnevis, an Iranian American engineer and professor, is recognized for his pioneering work on contour crafting, a large-scale 3D printing technique for constructing buildings [11]. This technique is based on computer-controlled robotic systems to extrude layers of concrete and other materials, enabling the rapid construction of entire buildings. The technology aims to streamline the construction process, reduce costs and address housing shortages. Koshnevis has used various prototypes to demonstrate the feasibility of contouring, pushing for the integration of 3D printing into the construction industry.

Saletto et al. (2016) conducted a study focused on the applications of 3D printing for constructing load-bearing concrete walls and building facades in a controlled environment. The aim of their work was to examine various printing techniques, materials and structural designs to assess the mechanical properties and performance of the printed walls, in order to provide valuable insights for creating durable and structurally sound concrete walls [12].

Fig. 1. Radiolaria Pavilion structure and 3D CAD model, saved as an .STL file for the 3D printer.

Fig. 1. Radiolaria Pavilion structure and 3D CAD model, saved as an .STL file for the 3D printer.

Speed of Construction and Concrete Printing. Regarding construction speed, back in 2017, Apis Cor and ICON, two American construction technology firms at the forefront of advancing robotics to address the housing crisis, successfully completed the construction of the first single-story residential building using 3D printing, accomplishing the entire project within a 24 -hour timeframe. This feat underscored the speed and efficiency that 3D printing can inject into the construction industry [13]. In 2018, building on their progress, ICON partnered with the nonprofit organization New Story to achieve a significant breakthrough. This collaboration led to the introduction of the first legally approved 3D-printed houses in the United States, addressing the critical issue of affordable housing solutions.

The construction of these pioneering houses utilized ICON's specially designed Vulcan printer, created specifically for construction purposes, with a focus on constructing large-scale structures such as buildings. In essence, the Vulcan printer represents a specialized advancement tailored to the unique requirements of the construction industry, whereas a standard 3D printer serves a diverse range of applications across various sectors. This printer is tailored to deposit construction-grade materials and is capable of constructing entire walls and structural elements, working with materials like concrete, mortar, or other suitable compounds that provide the required strength and durability for building structures. This accomplishment exemplifies the ongoing innovation within the 3D printing field, to address housing challenges and offer affordable solutions, while also significantly reducing construction time and minimizing material waste [14].

Use of plastics in 3d printing and alternative materials. Additive manufacturing, recognized for its inherent waste reduction capabilities, has been acknowledged as an environmentally friendly process. This dedication to sustainability is exemplified by influential additive manufacturing leaders' increased involvement in the Additive Manufacturer Green Trade Association (AMGTA) [15, 16].
As 3D printing gains traction across industries, its environmental impact, particularly regarding plastic usage, has become a topic of scientific inquiry. While 3D printing offers benefits like customization and waste reduction compared to traditional manufacturing, concerns have been raised about the ecological implications of plastic materials involved.
An integral facet presently under scholarly examination pertains to the life cycle assessment (LCA) of plastics employed within the domain of 3D printing. LCA methodologies furnish an encompassing evaluation of the ecological footprint associated with a product, traversing the entirety of its life cycle - starting from the procurement of raw materials to eventual disposal. Diverse inquiries have delved into pivotal considerations such as energy consumption, emissions of greenhouse gases, and various other environmental indicators intricately intertwined with the landscape of 3D printing processes involving plastic substrates.
Kreiger and Pearce (2015) conducted an LCA comparing the environmental impacts of distributed 3D printing and conventional manufacturing of polymer products [17]. Their findings revealed that while 3D printing reduces material waste, it often leads to higher energy consumption and emissions due to the energy-intensive nature of the process. This highlights the need for further research and development to optimize the environmental performance of 3D printing concerning plastic materials. The environmental implications of plastic usage in 3D printing are intricately tied to the selection of specific plastic materials. Some types of plastics, such as polylactic acid (PLA) or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), possess unique properties and exhibit distinct environmental footprints. Thoroughly considering the extraction, production, and disposal processes of plastic feedstocks, alongside a comprehensive understanding of the life cycle impacts of the plastics employed in 3D printing, constitutes the cornerstone for informed decision-making and the cultivation of sustainable practices [18]. Concerted efforts are currently underway to address the environmental repercussions of plastic usage in 3D printing.

Alternative materials in 3D Printing and Integration of Computational Design. Researchers and stakeholders in the industry are actively exploring alternative materials endowed with improved environmental characteristics, particularly focusing on bio-based and biodegradable polymers (Fig. 2) [19]. Speck et al. (2017) investigated the use of 3D printing to fabricate lightweight bio-inspired structures that mimic the strength and efficiency of natural materials, with the aim to reduce material waste and energy consumption in the construction process [20].

Fig. 2. Bio-based filler, alternative binders and bio-composites.

Fig. 2. Bio-based filler, alternative binders and bio-composites.

Naboni et al. (2019) conducted a research project based on a multi-scale computational workflow that integrates several aspects, such as material testing, bio-inspired design algorithms, multi-criteria optimization and production management. Furthermore, they underscored the significance of encompassing both environmental and economic aspects through life cycle assessments and costing
analyses of 3D printing technology [21]. Their exemplar project is represented by Trabeculae Pavilion, inspired by the intricate composition of trabecular bone. This load-responsive avant-garde structure represents the fusion of cutting-edge Additive Manufacturing techniques with the creative principles of bio-inspired computational design. The lattice structure, characterized by its interconnected network of slender elements, mimics the porous arrangement found in natural bone tissues. This architectural interpretation of nature's ingenuity not only exudes visual elegance but also serves as a testament to the Pavilion's commitment to sustainable design, using Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) one of the most cost-effective additive techniques of production.

The lattice's inherent lightweight nature minimizes the need for excessive construction materials, translating into reduced environmental impact and enhanced structural efficiency. The experiment is very interesting because it can demonstrate the possibility of realizing structures according to various scales precisely because the Trabeculae Pavilion design process involves material and structural optimization algorithms on multiple and interdependent hierarchical levels [22]. Every scale is intricately correlated with the others through considerations of form, materials and performance principles, leading to the evolution of a computational process. This workflow integrates diverse algorithms of varying types to facilitate the development of a unified and harmonious multi-scale design.

Fig. 3. Trabeculae Pavilion installed at Politecnico di Milano campus. Courtesy of Gabriele Seghizzi

Fig. 3. Trabeculae Pavilion installed at Politecnico di Milano campus. Courtesy of Gabriele Seghizzi

In parallel, other initiatives are being formulated to establish recycling and waste management systems that are specially tailored to address the materials used in 3D printing. Closed-loop systems, designed to facilitate the collection and reprocessing of plastic waste derived from 3D printing, can effectively minimize the environmental impact, harmonizing with the principles of the circular economy [23].

In the early 2020s, other research has explored alternatives to traditional concrete, such as geopolymers and bio-based composites, to fabricate structures characterized by both lightweight attributes and remarkable strength, thereby manifesting a noteworthy reduction in carbon emissions [24] (Fig. 5). These efforts respond harmoniously to the surging demand for sustainable construction practices and the imperative to diminish the ecological impact of the industry. In fact, geopolymers are a class of materials that offer several advantages for 3D printing, including high early strength, fire resistance and lower carbon emissions compared to traditional cement-based materials [25]. In summary, it is possible to develop structurally sound and sustainable building components. On the
other hand, bio-based composites represent a promising avenue in material science, wherein natural substances obtained from replenishable sources, such as natural fibers (Fig. 4) or biopolymers (Fig. 5 ) are employed as reinforcing agents within a matrix material.

Fig. 4. Natural fibers classification

Fig. 4. Natural fibers classification

Fig. 5. Biopolymers classification

Fig. 5. Biopolymers classification

Robotic and Automation Technologies. Contemporary research is focusing on enhancing the efficiency and precision of 3D printing processes for housing construction through the integration of robotics and improving the potential of on-site assembly [26]. Collaborative research endeavors between robotics engineers, computer scientists, and architects are yielding breakthroughs in realtime monitoring, adaptive printing, and autonomous robotic construction systems.

A notable study by Peng et al. (2018) explored the use of contour crafting and large-scale robotic arms for constructing building facades. Their research was focused on integrating architectural and functional requirements in the fabrication of facade elements using 3D printing technology. By enabling customization and design optimization, they investigated the creation of high-performing facade designs with enhanced functionality [27]. An important contribution in this field comes from Neri Oxman, an architect, designer, and professor at the MIT Media Lab. Her research group, Mediated Matter, focuses on the intersection of design, biology and material science. One of the projects undertaken by Mediated Matter is Fiberbots, which serves as a platform for digitally designing and fabricating large-scale structures with high spatial resolution [28]. Fiberbot works with fiber-reinforced composite materials like carbon fiber and fiberglass, aiming to fashion lightweight, robust, and adaptable building components (Fig. 6).

Specifically, it utilizes a robotic system to achieve precise and adjustable positioning of the fibers, integrating them into a structural matrix to form cohesive and functional elements. This innovative approach involves a coordinated swarm of mobile robotic units, also known as robots, governed by computational algorithms, to position and combine fibers, resulting in selected structural shapes [29]. The ultimate objective is to facilitate the fabrication of load-bearing structures with intricate
geometries that optimize material usage and enhance structural performance, also contributing to the enhanced scalability of 3D printed housing solutions.

Fig. 6. Swarm of Fiberbots and details

Fig. 6. Swarm of Fiberbots and details

On-site 3D printing, multi-material printing and the integration of sensors for structural health monitoring in 3D-printed buildings. Recent trends include projects for on-site 3D printing, multi-material printing, and the integration of sensors for structural health monitoring in 3D-printed buildings [30].

On-site 3D printing has emerged as a disruptive technology in the construction industry, enabling the fabrication of building components or entire structures at the construction site. This approach offers many advantages over traditional construction methods, one of which is a significant saving in time and costs. As a matter of fact, on-site 3D printing eliminates the need for complex and timeconsuming transportation of prefabricated components, reducing labor costs and construction time. This efficiency translates into reduced labor costs and faster project completion, which can have a substantial impact on overall project budgets and timelines.

Furthermore, on-site 3D printing enables a high level of customization and adaptability during the construction process. Traditional construction methods often require extensive planning and fabrication of components based on predetermined specifications. In contrast, on-site 3D printing allows for real-time adjustments and changes to be made during the printing process itself. This flexibility allows architects and planners to experiment with different designs, iterate quickly, and adapt to specific site conditions. This method also provides the basis for adaptive construction, where buildings can be modified or expanded easily in response to changing needs or future developments. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, renowned as home to the tallest building in the world, is predictably asserting its dominance with the world's most extensive 3D printed construction, at least for now. In this effort, the city has enlisted the expertise of Saudi Arabia's leading real estate developer, Dar Al Arkan, using a COBOD 3D construction printer (Fig. 7). Dar Al Arkan launched its pioneering 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) technology in the fourth quarter of 2021. This strategic move underscores the company's leadership in driving the transition of the construction and real estate sector towards advanced and sustainable building practices. This initiative aligns with the goals of Saudi Vision 2030, a national initiative aiming to support economic diversification and digitalization, making strides towards a progressive future.

Fig. 7. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The tallest 3 d printed building in the world

Fig. 7. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The tallest 3 d printed building in the world

Multi-material printing represents another promising frontier for innovation within the realm of 3D printed construction. Traditional construction methods often rely on a diverse range of materials, each chosen for specific structural attributes and aesthetic qualities. The concept of multi-material printing facilitates the fusion of different materials during a single 3D printing process, thereby enabling a convergence of distinct functionalities. To illustrate, reinforcements like fibers and metals can be integrated into the printed components, imparting heightened strength and durability. Furthermore, elements such as thermal insulation and acoustics can be directly incorporated into the printed structure, obviating the requirement for subsequent installation steps [31]. In a groundbreaking stride, the Wyeth Institute at Harvard University has introduced the concept of multimaterial multi-nozzle 3D (MM 3D printing). This revolutionary technology permits the transition between up to eight diverse materials within a single nozzle, mirroring the fluid adaptability witnessed in natural plant movement. This innovation aims to sculpt architecture capable of metamorphosis, inspired by the inherent flexibility of the natural plants [32]. Another active research area centers around the integration of distributed carbon nanotube composite sensors for monitoring the structural integrity of 3D-printed concrete. The unique electrical properties of the carbon nanotubes make them highly apt for sensor applications. Embedding these sensors within 3D-printed concrete structures empowers the continuous monitoring of an array of parameters, including strain, cracks, temperature, and humidity. This integration affords real-time insights into the structural integrity and performance of the concrete, providing real-time feedback on structural integrity and performance [33].

Discussion

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Advancement in building sectors: Disaster-Resistant and Resilient Housing

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Gaia. The progress of 3D printing technology in recent years has led to its growing prominence within the architectural sector, particularly in the creation of new building typologies, characterized by sustainability and resource efficiency. During the "A call to save the world" Conference, specifically the event "Journey to Shamballa" in 2018, WASP (World's Advanced Savings Project), a leading company in the 3D construction sector specializing in low-cost prototyping, unveiled Gaia, the world's first-ever building constructed using local raw earth and other natural compounds. The circular housing prototype was erected in a remarkably swift timeframe of just 200 hours, utilizing multiple 3D printers [34].

The successful completion of this construction project within a relatively short period of just over two weeks serves as compelling evidence of the potential of 3D printing technology in rapidly and efficiently creating affordable housing solutions. The design of the house is meticulously optimized for energy efficiency, featuring a passive solar technology that maximizes the utilization of natural light and ventilation. Additionally, the circular shape of the structure minimizes heat loss, contributing to a comfortable living environment for the occupants.

A noteworthy innovation incorporated into the Gaia structure is the implementation of a living wall system, aimed at enhancing the indoor air quality within the house. This system entails the vertical growth of a series of plants on the exterior facade that actively contribute to air purification by filtering out pollutants, thereby improving the overall health and well-being of the occupants [35]. Further, the integration of digital software and design presents a compelling avenue for exploring the diverse capabilities of 3D technology in harnessing agricultural resources on a global scale. This approach not only enables efficient resource utilization but also ensures minimal environmental impact. Leveraging the infinite design possibilities afforded by 3D printing is of paramount importance in advancing sustainable living and pushing the boundaries of agricultural practices into various contexts.

A notable advantage of 3D printing lies in the ability to fabricate structures capable of withstanding natural disasters and adapting to changing environmental conditions [36]. In fact, through complex geometries and the integration of smart materials, these technologies have showcased impressive resilience against seismic activities, hurricanes and floods, leading to the creation of robust and disaster-resistant housing solutions. The application of 3D printing technology in the construction industry has garnered significant attention in the way of addressing the worldwide housing crisis, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic [37].

The pandemic has exacerbated the housing situation, resulting in heightened financial struggles for many individuals due to job losses and reduced income [38]. In the post-pandemic recovery phase, the industrialization of the 3D printing industry, especially in large-format and large-scale product printing, has significantly increased. This trend aligns with the growing focus on resilient and disaster-resistant housing design, driven by the need for efficient and expedient construction methods [39]. According to projections by the United Nations Habitat, approximately three billion people, which accounts for about of the global population, will require access to adequate housing by the year 2030 [40]. This projection underscores the urgent and immense challenge in addressing the global housing crisis, emphasizing the need for innovative and efficient approaches like 3D printing technology to meet this unprecedented demand. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of 3D printing in housing and shelter construction was limited [41].

Tecla. In Italy, the Tecla project, a collaboration between Mario Cucinella Architects and WASP (World's Advanced Saving Project), is garnering attention as a pioneering effort in sustainable 3D printed housing that could have implications in the post-pandemic world (Figs. 8, 9). Actually, the project's emphasis on sustainable, eco-friendly construction could align with the growing demand for healthier and environmentally conscious living spaces post-pandemic.

Developed in 2021, Tecla is the world's first fully 3D-printed residential dwelling realized entirely with eco-friendly materials. Representing a best practice in sustainable and affordable housing, it exemplifies how energy demands and construction costs can be reduced while prioritizing environmental concerns [42]. The structure is mainly composed of a sustainable composite material that combines rice husk with a mixture of natural fibers like bamboo or straw. This composite material is bound together using a binder, which can be a bio-based resin or another eco-friendly adhesive. The combination of rice husk, natural fibers and a binder creates a strong and durable material that provides structural integrity to the structure.

The integration of rice husk and natural fibers, like bamboo or straw into the composit material, enhances the material's environmental profile by providing a renewable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional building materials with a lower carbon footprint. Rice husk, an abundant agricultural waste product, becomes a valuable resource when utilized as a key component in creating a biodegradable composite material, reducing waste and promoting resource efficiency.

The innovative use of rice husk in Tecla's material composition significantly contributes to its exceptional mechanical strength, elevating the durability and stability of the structure. About the shape, the organic and curvilinear architectural design of Tecla, inspired by the grace of natural forms, allows for adaptation to the intricate morphology of the surrounding terrain [43]. This approach involves mimicking the contours found in nature, integrating flowing lines, harmonizing with natural
elements, optimizing views and natural light and facilitating efficient natural ventilation, all of which culminate in a design that harmoniously merges the structure with its environment.
The adaptation to the intricate morphology of the surrounding terrain goes beyond visual harmony. The design integrates practical considerations as well. By conforming to the natural contours, the curvilinear design allows for efficient spatial utilization and smooth circulation within the building.

In addition, the smooth and flowing lines of the structure facilitate the capture and distribution of daylight, reducing the need for artificial lighting during the day. The curved surfaces also facilitate airflow direction, optimizing natural ventilation. The absence of sharp corners minimizes wasted space, fostering a sense of continuity and fluidity. This synthesis of form and function heightens the dwelling's usability and comfort, promoting energy efficiency and sustainable living.
To further enhance sustainability, Tecla integrates systems to reduce the reliance on traditional resources while simultaneously minimizing the environmental footprint: [44]

Rainwater Harvesting Systems. The architectural design incorporates strategically positioned gutters, downspouts and collection channels to efficiently capture and channel rainwater. The collected rainwater is directed towards storage tanks or reservoirs, typically located underground or integrated within the building's structure. Prior to usage, the collected rainwater undergoes thorough filtration and treatment processes to ensure its quality and suitability for purposes such as irrigation, toilet flushing and laundry.

Solar Energy Production Technologies. The structure embraces solar energy as a primary renewable energy source. The design of the dwelling incorporates solar panels on the roof and façade, employing photovoltaic (PV) technology to harness sunlight and convert it into electricity. The placement of these solar panels is carefully planned to optimize solar exposure and maximize energy generation. The captured solar energy is then either stored in batteries for later use or directly fed into the building's electrical system. This solar energy powers a range of functions within the house, such as lighting, appliances and other electrical devices. By making extensive use of solar energy, Tecla reduces reliance on fossil fuels, mitigates greenhouse gas emissions linked to conventional energy sources and contributes to a low-carbon energy supply.

Smart Energy Management Systems. The house incorporates intelligent energy management systems that monitor energy consumption, optimize usage patterns and prioritize energy distribution. These systems help minimize energy waste and promote efficient utilization of available resources. Additionally, energy storage solutions may be employed to ensure a consistent and sustainable power supply, even during periods of limited sunlight. By integrating these smart energy management systems, Tecla enhances energy efficiency and improves the effective use of solar energy, further reducing the general environmental impact of the structure.

The methodology emphasizes the importance of affordability, seeking to face the persistent housing crisis, providing solutions that are accessible and economically viable. Tecla also recognizes the significance of social inclusivity, aiming to create communities that foster equity, diversity and well-being, furthering the cause of an environmentally conscious development on a broader scale. Finally, Tecla is an ambitious example of a forward-thinking initiative that addresses sustainability, adaptability and efficiency - all considerations that gained prominence due to the pandemic's effects on how we live and work. While it might not be a direct response to the pandemic, it serves as a notable example of a good practice of how 3D printed housing can align with the evolving needs of a post-pandemic world.

Figs. 8. 9. TECLA by Mario Cucinella in collaboration with WASP. View of On-site 3D printing in Massa Lombarda, province of Ravenna, Italy

Figure 8. Figs. 8. 9. TECLA by Mario Cucinella in collaboration with WASP. View of On-site 3D printing in Massa Lombarda, province of Ravenna, Italy

Contemporary research and 3D printed houses after the pandemic. Contemporary research is at the forefront of developing specific materials for 3D printed houses. The exploration of sustainable alternatives to traditional construction materials has led to the formulation of eco-friendly concrete mixes, biodegradable polymers and even construction-grade natural fibers. Collaborative research efforts are dedicated to optimizing these materials for 3D printing, in order to meet structural, thermal and durability requirements while minimizing environmental impact.

In 2018, a collaborative project involving IIT Madras faculty members and the Chennai-based startup Tvasta resulted in the swift construction of a house on the university campus in just about a week. This compact abode, spanning 32 square meters, was thoughtfully designed for optimal efficiency, resulting in a cost reduction and a significant reduction in waste generated during the construction process [45]. This accomplishment was bolstered by a strategic shift away from manual labor, accompanied by the integration of recyclable and versatile materials. These deliberate choices not only enhanced the economic viability of the dwelling but also contributed substantially to the mitigation of its environmental impact.

Continuing their trajectory of achievement from previous undertakings, the Tvasta team achieved another milestone in 2020 by erecting a dwelling spanning 56 square meters within the confines of IIT Madras. The structural robustness of their 3D-printed concrete can be achieved within a few minutes and the entire edifice can be completed in just a week (Fig. 10) [46].

This feat of engineering represents a substantial leap forward in the endeavor to provide secure, cost-effective housing solutions for vulnerable communities worldwide [47]. By exemplifying the potential of 3D printing technology in the construction sector, Tvasta's achievements underscore the prospects of innovative building methods to address global housing needs, while simultaneously mitigating financial strain and providing environmental benefits.

Fig. 10. Tvasta's first structure is a single-storey house, a unit, created in collaboration with Habitat for Humanity's Terwilliger Center for Innovation in Shelter at the IIT-Madras campus.

Fig. 10. Tvasta's first structure is a single-storey house, a unit, created in collaboration with Habitat for Humanity's Terwilliger Center for Innovation in Shelter at the IIT-Madras campus.

Project Milestone, a collaborative endeavor involving Eindhoven University of Technology, Van Wijnen, Saint-Gobain Weber Beamix and other partners, stands as an inspiring exemplar of 3D printing technology's significant impact on the construction industry and housing sector (Fig. 11). The project's ambitious aim entails the design and construction of five 3D-printed houses, specifically intended for family habitation, with a foreseen minimum projected lifespan of 50 years. [48].

The first house, completed in 2019, marks European achievement as the first legally habitable 3Dprinted dwelling. This striking single-story bungalow boasts a graceful, curved design, comprising two bedrooms and a living area of 94 square meters. Employing concrete printing, a specialized variant of 3D printing, the construction process imbued the house with an organically flowing form, gracing its walls with unique textures. In fact, the large-scale 3D printer meticulously deposited concrete material layer by layer, resulting in the precise realization of the architectural design. Such innovative construction techniques facilitated the efficient production of visually appealing components, which were seamlessly assembled on-site to complete the final structure [49].

These robust walls, an impressive 11 centimeters thick, ensure both structural integrity and optimal thermal performance. The integration of pipes and ducts for electricity and plumbing directly into the 3D-printed walls during the concrete printing process streamlined the installation of these vital components. This approach bypassed the need for separate installation procedures, significantly reducing construction time and enhancing overall efficiency.

The successful completion and habitation of the 3D-printed houses in Project Milestone signify a noteworthy advancement in the progressive evolution of 3D printing technology within the construction industry. In this context, the achievement accentuates the practical viability and inherent environmental responsibility in constructing both functional and aesthetically pleasing residences.

With an innovative approach that integrates sustainable design principles and streamlines construction timelines, the distinct design of the house is a product of extensive research and development endeavors aimed at unlocking the design freedom of concrete printing.

The achievements highlight the transformative potential of 3D printing technology in a framework of responsible construction practices, demonstrating the ability to address housing challenges on a global scale in order to meet the diverse needs of various communities.

Fig. 11. Eindhoven: A 3D-Printed Concrete House within the Project Milestone Framework

Fig. 11. Eindhoven: A 3D-Printed Concrete House within the Project Milestone Framework

Additive manufacturing for solving housing's crisis in South Africa. South Africa is facing a significant shortage of affordable housing, exacerbated by rapid urbanization, population growth and limited resources [50].

In 2021, a collaborative study by the Academy of Science of South Africa (Assaf) and the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) unveiled a substantial urban housing backlog, surpassing 2.4 million houses. This situation has forced numerous families into informal settlements [51]. As a strategic response to the housing crisis in South Africa, the University of Johannesburg made a significant investment in 3D printing technology during 2022. This initiative aims to effectively tackle the social housing backlog prevailing in the country. Projections indicate that the 3D printing market is poised to reach a substantial valuation of billion by 2024.

Indeed, over the years, research and experimentation with various typologies of 3D-printable materials have expanded significantly, rendering the technology increasingly valuable across diverse sectors. Notably, the 3D printer deployed at the University of Johannesburg holds the capacity to construct an entire cost-effective house within 8 hours. More specifically, the resulting building presents upgraded features in comparison to conventional housing structures, encompassing heightened strength, enhanced fire resistance and improved insulation properties (Figs. 12, 13) [52].

While the integration of 3D printing presents a promising and sustainable solution to the housing crisis in South Africa, it is essential to recognize the multifaceted nature of the housing challenge. The Constitutional Court, in the case of Government of the Republic of South Africa and Others v Grootboom and Others, eloquently articulated that the concept of housing transcends mere construction materials, encapsulating a comprehensive framework encompassing land availability, essential services such as water provisioning and sewage management and the financial means to support these components, including the actual construction of the dwelling itself. Indeed, to ensure the realization of adequate housing, a holistic approach is necessary, addressing not only issues about the physical structure but also the elements of land accessibility and service provision availability.

As established by legal precedent, access to land stands as an inherent component of the right to adequate housing, reaffirming the interconnectedness of these elements within the broader context of housing rights [53]. Implementing the advancement of 3D printing technologies requires a concerted effort in upskilling architects and engineers. Indeed, as emerging roles, opportunities, and industries take shape, the need to align skills, automation, and employment becomes ever more pronounced.

Embracing a proactive approach to these advancements is crucial for bridging the skills gap and adapting to the evolving landscape. Traditional construction methods struggle to keep up with the demand, leading to inadequate living conditions for a significant number of citizens.

Therefore, the housing crisis requires solutions that can be scaled rapidly and additive manifacturing technology offers the potential for mass production of housing units in a short period. By reproducing designs and harnessing automated processes, 3D printing has the potential to substantially amplify housing unit production, thereby addressing the housing crisis in South Africa and benefiting a greater number of people in need [54].

The potential to construct affordable, customizable and sustainable buildings gives a glimpse into the future of construction sector in sensitive contexts. Furthermore, through the strategic use of this technology, South Africa can make substantial progress in offering its citizens dignified and secure housing. This effort can contribute to enhanced living conditions and the advancement of community development.

To introduce 3D printing as a compulsory subject in all high technical schools and Technical Vocational Education and Training institutes (Tvet) is a good practice. The successful implementation of the mandatory AI literacy course at the University of Johannesburg serves as an exemplary illustration of how this strategy can be effectively executed.

Developing national plans for reindustrialization catalyzed by 3D printing and investing in 3D printing facilities and, through tax breaks, can incentivize companies to invest in this technology to increase productivity, as well. In the face of vast inequality and a housing crisis, tangible solutions cannot be dismissed because the opportunities exist. Therefore, the wider implications need to be examined as these changes and their potential impact are addressed.

Fig. 12. South Africa's first 3D printed low-cost house.

Fig. 12. South Africa's first 3D printed low-cost house.

Fig. 13. South Africa's first 3D printed low-cost house

Fig. 13. South Africa's first 3D printed low-cost house

Conclusions

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Future challenges and prospects

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The findings of this contribution demonstrate an ever-increasing development of the building and design industry through 3D printing technology. In recent decades, alternative high-performing materials created by innovative printing systems is changing the way of doing architecture. Collaborative endeavors are indispensable for pushing the boundaries of material efficiency in 3D printing applications. By adopting a collaborative and multidisciplinary approach, architects, material scientists and engineers can develop the best strategies and materials tailored to meet the specifications of 3D printing techniques. This synergy ensures that material properties are optimized not only for structural integrity but also for eco-consciousness, promoting the responsible utilization of resources and reducing the reliance on traditional building materials known for their environmental impact. However, it is necessary to address several challenges to gain widespread adoption in the construction industry.

A primary challenge revolves around the need for standardized regulations and building codes specifically designed to address the complexities of 3D printing. Prevailing codes oftentimes inadequately encompass the distinct facets of additive manufacturing, encompassing material characteristics, construction techniques and quality validation. As the tide surges towards heightened adoption of additive manufacturing in construction endeavors, the inadequacies of extant building codes are manifest.

Continuously evolving guidelines, precisely calibrated to accommodate the unique characteristics of 3D printing systems, are consistently refined to ensure the sustained safety and compliance within the construction sector. These regulations encompass considerations, including structural robustness, ecological ramifications, legal ramifications and construction benchmarks.

Another significant challenge is the scalability of 3D printing technologies. While miniature-scale prototypes have successfully materialized, transmuting these paradigms to erect more expansive and intricate edifices mandates strides in print celerity, automation, and the evolution of monumentalscale printers. Finally, another issue is the cost-effectiveness of 3D. While these technologies can reduce construction costs over the long term, initial investment costs can be significant. For that
reason, it is important to identify locally available material, recommend the most appropriate one available for local 3d printing.

Finding ways to optimize the printing process, reduce material expenses and increase production efficiency will be crucial to making 3D printing economically viable for mainstream construction projects.

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 63-79

doi: 10.4028/p-0G1naf

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-10-03

Revised:
2023-10-05

Accepted:
2023-10-06

Online:
2024-01-03

Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.63.pdf

Carla Langella

¹Dipartimento di Architettura - Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Forno Vecchio, 36, 80134 Napoli NA, Italy

carla.langella@unina.it

Keywords: empathy, relational design, emotional design, systemic-relational psychology, neurosciences

Abstract

The chapter investigates the role that design discipline can have in the field of human affective relationships. For this role to be effective, the designer will have to elaborate strategies, tools, and methods for the development of a new generation of relational and interactive artefacts that, through innovative analogue and digital solutions, are proposed as active mediators of interpersonal emotional relationships. Mediation can take place through the decoding of signals with a high emotional component and the management of multisensory interaction modes. The paper proposes some projects developed in this direction within the Hybrid Design Lab, a laboratory born in the Department of Architecture and Industrial Design of the University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", from 2022 placed in the Department of Architecture of the University of Naples Federico II.

Introduction

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.63.pdf

The chapter explores the possibility that design, collaborating with other disciplines, may be able to conceive artefacts useful for improving the quality of affective relationships between people. This investigation intends to offer a contribution to the design culture by identifying a new design scenario that can be defined as systemic-relational design because it refers to systemic-relational psychotherapy approach originated in the United States around the 1950s. The protagonists in the elaboration of this theoretical and clinical model are the founders of the Palo Alto School and the Mental Research Institute: Gregory Bateson, Don D. Jackson, Jay Haley, and Paul Watzlawick. Systemic-relational psychotherapy is based on the observation of the interaction between the patient and his family in order to reinterpret and modify dysfunctional behaviour, highlight and exploit the resources of the individual and the system, with the aim of re-signifying symptoms and explicating their function within the relational nucleus. We work on the situations and relational dynamics that may have led to the symptomatic onset rather than on the symptom itself.

In design field this approach can foster alternative ways of emotional interaction to counter the conditions of isolation, loneliness, and depression that are increasingly widespread due to the perennial state of fragility induced by the looming environmental, health, and economic emergencies and alienation caused by the pervasiveness of digital technologies in everyone's daily life [1].
Various researchers in sociology, anthropology, and psychology describe the afflictive state of individuals who suffer a feeling of loneliness despite the spread of social networks and telecommunication technologies.

From a social welfare perspective, telecommunication tools can be interpreted as bridges that connect people by bridging distances of time and space. Social neuroscientists define multimodal human relationships to denote the combination of interactions that extend from the physical world into the online dimension, or from the web also propagate into the physical world. This offers opportunities for shyer and less active people to overcome their resistance [2].

But the concept of loneliness in the age of hyper connectedness takes on different and complex nuances [3, 4]. In digital relationships, the senses are generally not stimulated to the same extent as in face-to-face relationships. In phone calls and voice messages, only hearing is possible, in video calls only sight and hearing. The reduction in sensory complexity leads to an impoverishment of cognitive and emotional potential and induces people to be more rational, and to measure and control
their actions and reactions. Digital communication no longer requires people to make the effort to manage and modulate the multiple sensory and emotional dimensions that come into play in face-toface interactions, not mediated by technological devices. Even the mechanism of recalling previous experiences, which is based on sensory stimuli, is reduced to the detriment of the emotional intensity of the experience. Thus, all the variables related to the perception of the impact of the other on personal space, the emotional effect of eye contact, the communicativeness of expressive facial nuances, and body language are lost [5].

The prevalence of these forms of communication in the lives of individuals, particularly young people, results in an emotional detachment with a prevalence of functionalist rationality, especially when communication is asynchronous and not having to respond instantaneously allows for more rational reflection and planning of responses to stimuli. The coldness and detachment of these modes correspond to a greater superficiality. Contacts may multiply, but the sense of intimacy tends to become artificial and fleeting, and the sense of loneliness is amplified [6].

Interaction as biological matter

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Some researchers have shown that people with close interpersonal relationships of friendship or love use video calls and chats to preserve this bond, but, in fact, these tools rarely foster relationship growth. Physical distance leads to a lack of physiological relationships between people's bodily components. All physical manifestations of affection such as hugging, caressing, and meeting of the eyes have an effect on people's physiology as they stimulate the production of substances that affect mood and psycho-physical well-being such as [7].

The human body is both an emitter and receptor of information and stimuli, but it is also an instrument for determining space, objects, and the shape of human relationships. An important role in interpersonal relationships is played by mirror neurons that enable empathy with other people and the environment, colors, and sounds that determine the development of cognitive and emotional experience. Emotions arise from the combination of the contingent condition and the set of experiences, knowledge, and memories that the individual has accumulated over previous time.

The result is a contraction of the flow of interchange and reciprocity. The interaction between bodies as living biological matter and between bodies and space is reduced, and that dimension of chain reactions that set in motion and nurture the vital process of human relationship is missing. The digital relationship, at least as it has been experienced so far, however complex and changeable it may be, requires bodies to assume predefined, customary and codified positions and configurations. The human relationship in presence involves all the senses and the extensions of the body determines a continuous adaptive transformation of experience, of the substance of space and things. The whole experiential compartment is more indefinite and less predetermined with a continuous questioning of patterns through the human's capacity to feel and transmit [8].

It seems that hyper-connectedness and over-exposure, therefore, aggravate conditions of depression and inadequacy [9]. In particular, in affective, family, friendship or love relationships, the solder constituted by physiological intimacy is increasingly weakening,

These major differences between digital and analogue experiences in presence should not lead us to demonize the digital, which is an integral and inevitable part of the Anthropocene. Rather, it can serve to design digital experiences more consciously, in order to make them a means of transformation, of breaking the mold, of interpenetration between technological matter and corporeal matter.

Designing antidotes to loneliness

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For designers, it is imperative to rethink objects, environments, and the human body itself with the tools and filters induced by contemporaneity, the pervasiveness of the digital, emergencies, and the growing fragility that comes with it.

Before the COVID-19 emergence, digital technologies were largely understood as an extension of the body today it is the body that appears almost as an extension of technologies, as a transdigital
platform in close continuity, as well as contiguity, with the multiple manifestations of the digital dimension [10].

On the other hand, the body today is a platform connected to the digital but much more unknown with respect to technology because contemporary medical and biological sciences do not yet fully understand the logic that correlates the physiological component of interpersonal relations, linked to endocrine or neurological phenomena, with the psychological one.

The methodological approach followed in this chapter is based on a theoretical investigation into the impact of design on emotions and relationships between people, followed by a description of the state of the art of relational design and then the illustration of projects developed in the Hybrid Design Lab. These examples serve to demonstrate how important it is in this field to use a hybrid multidisciplinary approach that also involves sociologists, psychologists, and neurologists. In the described projects, the concept of interpersonal relations is expressed both in its "in presence" meaning, within predominantly private and domestic spaces, and "at a distance" meaning, with particular attention to the new needs that have emerged following the Sars-Cov-2 emergency. The intention is to respond to these new needs by grafting new forms and modes of empathy-driven experience through the use of wearable technologies and furnishing products.

The conceived artifacts are proposed as agents that induce people, their behavior, and thoughts towards directions and approaches that facilitate communication, empathy, mutual understanding and processes of cohesion and collaboration.

In those that include the digital component, relational mediation is conducted by means of sensor and processor systems that implement machine learning algorithms and signal actuation systems, both digital and analogue, embedded in networked products in an Internet Of Things perspective that connects the digital dimension with the physical-analogue one.

Design as a tool for relational mediation

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Design that deals with configuring artifacts that mediate relationships between individuals must increasingly relate to disciplines such as neuroscience, cognitive and behavioral psychology, form psychology and sociology. It therefore lies in a hybrid direction between medical science and the humanities, as is often the case with design. Designers therefore have the task of acquiring hybrid extra disciplinary knowledge, such as that concerning the functioning of mirror neurons and empathy.

To assess the ability of objects to influence interactions between people, it is important to first analyse the studies conducted on the ability of objects to stimulate emotions. The relationships existing between the nervous system, sensory stimuli, perception, and memory constitute an important foundation for the design of objects that should orient, moderate, and modulate relationships between people.

Analyzing the relevant scientific literature, it emerges that from the 1970s onwards, questions related to the ability of objects to generate conditions conducive to social interaction or to hinder it had become relevant.

The sociologist Ivan Illich in Tools for Conviviality emphasized the ability of objects to generate conditions conducive to social interaction or to hinder it but questioned whether the industrial production system could fully meet the needs related to conviviality by making people passive consumers who are unable to manage individual freedom related to personal interdependence. By conviviality Illich means the set of creative and autonomous relationships that exist between people and between people and their environment. For Illich, conviviality is in contrast to the modes of interaction imposed by artificial products, which as predefined leave no room for creativity and autonomy [11].

Lucius Burckhardt later observed in the 1980s, however, that all types of objects, even industrial ones, cannot be considered neutral, because through them the intentions of the designers, the companies that produce them, and the users that condition relationships and behavior are manifested. The design of products, and services related to them, consciously takes into account the invisible overall system composed of objects and interpersonal relationships [12].

A leading role in this perspective was played by Donald Arthur Norman, professor of Cognitive Science and Psychology at Northwestern University, who in his text Emotional Design states that an object's ability to arouse positive emotions makes it more desirable than one designed simply with ergonomic or exclusively functional criteria [13].

At the intersection of neuroscience and design lies neurodesign, a branch of neuroaesthetics that studies neuronal reactions in response to stimulus provoked by objects, products, environments and services [14]. It has been shown that when a product or object stimulates the orbitofrontal areas of the brain, which are the centers of the perception of beauty and pleasure, it receives a series of stimuli by transforming them into an electrochemical language. This type of analysis is called sensory analysis, that is a process of evaluation using the senses that began to be theorized in the middle of the last century. The nerve structures that receive sensory stimuli have the function of organizing and interpreting them, and then sending the processed information to the brain. Perceptual structures then process the sensory information and enable the brain to recognise surfaces, shapes and objects. These capabilities are greatly influenced by previous experiences and are therefore closely linked to memory, which enables the individual to make complex evaluations called synesthesia. These complex evaluations can involve, for example, colors, awakening unconscious memories and can be exploited to design spaces that aim to create environmental comfort [15].

Empathic design is a human-centered approach that pays attention to people's emotions and needs. The basis of empathic design is observation, with the aim of identifying unexpressed latent needs and creating a product that the user did not know they wanted, in a way that is antithetical to traditional marketing research. The observations are carried out by teams of designers, sociologists and engineers. Designers come into empathetic contact with people, who became a source of inspiration and innovation.

The method defined by Leonard and Rayport [16] is based on the following steps:

observing and understanding the market and people;

observing people in real-life situations to understand what makes them;
weak, what confuses them, what they love or hate, where they have latent needs unmet by existing products or services;

reflection, brainstorming, visualizing innovative concepts;

developing and marketing innovative products.

Empathic modeling is a strategy of Empathic Design that helps to broaden one's empathic horizon: experiencing the psycho-physical situations of others to understand their point of view, develop a deeper understanding, acquire greater empathy and emotional connection to others, promote a change in personal thinking and help the designer detect what is important.

The birth of Relational Design occurs with the shift from the 'science of the object' to the 'science of relationships' as the product is no longer seen as an entity in itself but in relation to people and the context in which it is placed. Relational ties are embodied in relational objects: relational design products participate in the systemic and social dynamics that develop within a stable or temporary social group, creating a focal point of attention to encourage communication, interaction, and mutual sharing. Relational objects fit into the dynamics facilitating communicative exchange, they are boundary objects that can be mediating, organizational, participatory, and narrative. This is a concept introduced by Star and Griesemer in 1989 [17], to define any object that, as a marginal presence, exists at the intersection of two or more different social worlds, facilitating communication between them, without fully belonging to any of them, and acquiring a different identity in each social world it inhabits.

While the scientific literature is quite extensive on the relationship between objects and induced emotions, there are fewer treatises on the impact of artifacts in mediating human relationships. Most of these studies concern the action of digital technologies on interaction since the 1980s when the electronic revolution took place. During this period it was proposed that objects acquired an electronic soul or a smart technological component, opening up the horizon of interaction design, in which artefacts that were inert and opaque in the past, acquired the capacity to perceive and react, interacting with people and mediating interactions between individuals, and between people and environments.

A horizon that, with the development of digital technologies and infrastructures over the last two decades, in the dimension of the Internet Of Things [18], has led objects to be equipped with sensors, actuators, and connective devices that enable them to acquire messages, data, and information from users, transferring them to the network and to other individuals, outlining a complex relational infrastructure rich in potential. Extending Illich's vision, the IOT generates a new parallel digital and global conviviality.

Wearable systems are the epitome of the Internet of things, which is now mature enough to represent an extremely important global market. E-watches are an emblematic example of the state of the art of wearable systems, the tip of the iceberg of the now mature wearable technology, of which bracelets, patches, fitness bands, are other applications. A feature of these systems is often synchronization with smartphones, through which everyone can create a personal cloud computing for wearable devices, the Wpan (Wireless personal area network), which brings together handheld devices with wearables to interconnect and control our surroundings in an immediate and personalized manner.

The IOT makes it possible to 'animate' lamps, household appliances, and music devices, creating a scenario in which living environments are a place of interaction not only between people but also between people and machines.

In the text Hacking Life: Systematised Living and Its Discontents, Joseph Reagle dedicates space to the topic of Hacking Relationships, emphasizing how the intermediation of digital tools and the processing of quantitative and qualitative data used to manipulate certain aspects of interpersonal relationships cannot govern, let alone predict relational dynamics, the nuances and unpredictability of which are so complex that no programming and calculation tool could manage them [19].

The new frontiers of IT product development aim to implement sentimental products that take into account the user's reaction to the system and interact with it based on their emotional state. The realisation that emotions are a fundamental component of behavior and communication, has led developers of human-computer interaction systems to take the emotional aspect into account in the human-computer interface.

Affective computing is an innovative methodology for the development of systems capable of recognising, interpreting and emulating human emotional behavior, in which artificial intelligence, soft computing, psychology, neurocognitive sciences and sensory technology are combined. Affective computing is a new branch of computer science that was born in 1995 with a book by Rosalind Picard [20], researcher at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. Her emerging idea is that the machine can interpret the human emotional state and adapt its behavior.

In recent years, sensory technology in combination with embedded computing has created an ideal application platform for the realization of systems with emotional interpretation and interaction capabilities.

Wearable computing is the enabling technology that brings affective computing to integration with the user's body. Thanks to single-chip system integration technology, a new generation of wearable systems or systems that can be integrated with the human body and its natural activities has already been achieved. By integrating sensors and actuators, wearable devices allow affective computing models to be implemented so that they can interact non-invasively with the person and their environment.

Affective sensors are a new generation of sensors (interaction technologies with the world/with individuals) that capture physical, physiological, or bioelectric information and extract emotional and behavioral information. The detection of emotions can take place through:

voice, one of the signals with the highest information content of an emotional nature, a noninvasive and non-collaborative;

facial expression, for video capture;

gestures, for video capture;

galvanic conductivity of the skin;

heart rate, for capture at the periphery of the body, from the hands (for support), from the wrist (strap, bracelet, watch, etc.) as an electrical signal, or from the chest with a patch;

skin temperature.

A further development in sensory technology that further extends the applicability of affective computing on mobile platforms is contextual sensing [21]: an integrated sensory technology that utilizes sensors of various natures (static, movement, height, environmental temperature) and algorithms that fuse information with respect to where the user is.

Thanks to this sensory approach, affective computing applications can be supported by microelectronic solutions suitable for the realization of wearable applications.

Here, design has the ability to build bridges between the technical-scientific rigor of computer science and neuroscience, with the more human components of relationships such as psychological, cultural, and emotional aspects.

Wearable relational products can make it possible to orient and modulate relationships but also to map them by acquiring physiological and biometric data connected with emotions and perceptions in order to obtain relational and emotional maps. These maps, which are then traced back to the cognitive and communicative aspects, can be the input for sociological studies, business organisation processes, and marketing activities.

These data can be acquired and decoded with the expressive languages and tools of design, such as storytelling, in order to increase the interpersonal awareness of users.

Digital contiguities and the multi sensoriality of emotion

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Among the design experiences analyzed in the course of the research in the international sphere, particular attention was paid to two categories of projects those that attempt to recapitulate the multimodal complexity of relational experience through multisensory technological artefacts based on virtual and augmented relationships, and those that, instead, through the intermediation of predominantly analogue objects, aim to 'orient' relationships, almost forcing them in a direction of reciprocity and attentiveness.

To the first group of projects belongs predominantly digital products, often wearable, in which the integration of sensors and actuators enables connection between distant people, establishing new forms of proximity in which emotions and sensations, rather than messages, can be shared. For instance, Pillow Talk, developed by London-based start-up Little Riot, aims to restore intimacy in long-distance relationships by remotely transmitting a person's heartbeat to their loved one and vice versa. The product-service system consists of two kits consisting of a sensor bracelet (sender) and a small speaker (receiver). The wristband must be worn by both before going to sleep, while the speaker must be placed under the pillow to allow contact when in bed. The elements are connected to each other via the Little Riot app that must be installed on the smartphones of both users. The project is based on the assumption that being able to listen to the sound of a distant loved one's heartbeat helps to maintain empathy.

The Bond bracelet, developed by the also London-based start-up Kwamecorp, relies on tactile rather than auditory sensory perception. When one person touches or caresses the bracelet, the other feels a slight vibration, intended to emulate a caress, and sees an LED light up whose colour correlates with the duration of the caress. The components integrated into the Bond are a touch sensor, a vibration motor, an LED, a battery, an accelerometer, access for charging, and Bluetooth with which it connects to an app that must be downloaded to a smartphone. The related app records the strokes, their frequency, duration, and translates them visually as a kind of 'emotion map'. The Hey bracelet developed by House of Haptics sends haptic signals to transmit haptic stimuli with different intensities depending on the intended message.

Researchers at City University of London's Imagineering lab in 2016 responded to the problem of long-distance relationships with the design of a device evocatively named Kissinger that allows for remote kissing using pressure sensors and mechanical actuators. The two long-distance partners insert their smartphones into the device, then initiate a video call, via the dedicated app, during which they can each kiss the surface of the Kissinger, which contains sensors that detect the pressure points of the lips and translate them into data that are sent to the recipient's device on the phone, which processes them by translating them through mechanical actuators into a dynamic morphology that
reproduces the lips in the act of the kiss being sent. The aim is to offer partners the sensation of a live kiss.

The company CuteCircuit has developed HugShirt, a t -shirt that allows people to virtually embrace those who are far away, thanks to a smart fabric that incorporates sensors that record the mechanical and thermal stresses related to the act of hugging by transferring them via Bluetooth.

The objects of the new conviviality

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To the second category of projects belongs furniture and home accessories for a new conviviality. This type of furniture often presents unusual aesthetic characteristics to attract attention, destabilize, make one reflect, with the intention of breaking through the wall of inattention that characterizes the frenetic and hyperchaotic daily life of so many individuals. In particular, these furnishings focus on the material, analogical component, on multi-sensory physical perception to counteract the detachment from the concrete world induced by connective and collective hyper-digitalisation.

Outdoor furnishings often have a more conceptual character because they address a message to society, such as the installations by Michael Beitz, an American artist and designer, who plays with the functionality of everyday furnishings, such as the picnic table, the sofa, the bench, and many others, reinterpreting them through distorted and twisted morphologies that evoke the feelings of isolation and alienation that are increasingly felt in relationships between people. Knotted sofas, intertwined beds, tables, benches that wrap around themselves, and tops that lose their usual solid consistency to become liquid, induce people to reflect on the complexity of the contemporary psychosocial condition.

Many relational urban furnishings, on the other hand, have a functional as well as a speculative intent because they encourage sharing and proxemics [22] such as the S -shaped bench called Paul&Paula designed and self-produced by Berlin-based designer Jan-Erik Urban, which facilitates conversation, work or shared meals and the exchange of glances while ensuring a filter between bodies.

For interiors, on the other hand, there are a number of experiments that lead to sharing and creating private niches in collective spaces such as co-working spaces, such as the Confession project by Swedish designer Nick Ross, which consists of a high table with a sort of hat with an acoustic absorber that incorporates the heads of two people while leaving the bodies uncovered to allow private conversations in crowded places. The same approach has been used in the project Bar Non-Lieudi by the Viennese design studio Breaded Escalopeha, which has reinterpreted the concept of the mobile bar by making it habitable and enveloping to give two people the possibility of having a drink in a dimension of privacy.

Although they favor the material component, some of these designs nevertheless incorporate a technological part necessary to draw attention and initiate interaction. One example is the Living Light lamp designed by Joon&Jung in the shape of a flower, which, through a sensor system, modulates its degree of openness, light intensity and color, according to the amount of people present under its diameter, until it closes and turns off completely when no one is around to avoid to waste energy.

In the domestic and family sphere, numerous designers have proposed furniture that includes a playful component to consolidate relationships by relying on the possibility of reconnecting through sharing a fun experience. The Tafelwip project by Dutch designer Marleen Jansen, is a seat integrated with the table, similar to a playground swing, so if one of the two jumps up, the other loses balance and is likely to fall. An ironic way to prompt reflection on the importance of balance in relationships and the importance of paying attention to others, gaining awareness of sentimental bonds, and the effect of actions and behaviors on others' lives and emotions.

Another Increasingly popular product is 'friendship lamps', a type of lamp of which several versions have been made, which work through an application that allows people who own these lamps to communicate their emotions from a distance by sending color, light, and sound inputs to their friends' lamps.

Hybrid relational design

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In response to this scenario, the research activities conducted within the Hybrid Design Lab aim to mediate relationships through the management of multisensory modes of interaction and the encoding of signals with a high emotional component, with a focus on multisensory interactions.

The designed artifacts are proposed as agents that induce people, their behaviors and thoughts, toward directions and approaches that facilitate communication, empathy, mutual understanding, cohesion, and collaboration processes. It is, moreover, to improve the quality of relationships through a Human Centered Design approach [23], which does not address people understood as mere users but, more empathetically, as individuals, whose individual identities and differences are to be valued, taking into account psycho-physical aspects, behaviors, intentions, desires, different cognitive and perceptual attitudes, in order to "increase" the possibilities of inclusion the abilities and perceptions of each.

Some of the projects developed in the Hybrid Design Lab in the field of systemic-relational design are described below in order to better describe the topics covered above.

EVE

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EVE is an interactive lamp designed for domestic environments that performs the function of mediating relationships among family members to make them aware of daily emotional and relational dynamics (Fig. 1). The lamp evokes the concept of a domestic hearth amplifying the sentimental landscapes around it by detecting voices, words, moods and emotions, transmuting them into solicitations such as sounds, lights, colors, actions and movements. Specifically, through a system of voice and sound recognition modules that can be programmed with a code to be instructed to recognize certain words and sounds, benevolent tones can be discerned from hostile ones, and variations and peaks in pitch and volume can be recorded. The speech recognition module is connected to a LED array, electromagnets, and a sound generator.

Under idle conditions, the lamp emits white light filtered by diffusers. When a positive atmosphere is perceived around those by, through laughter or affectionate words, the lamp illuminates the room it is in with a kaleidoscope of colors to amplify its beneficial and empathic effect.

In contrast, when people are arguing, EVE turns totally red, emits a subtle sound, and disrupts, as if by an explosion, separating the speaker panels as a result of the action of the magnets in the doors. With this reaction, the device brings about a distinct change in context, both visually and sonically, aimed at distracting people from the argument to induce in them an awareness of what is happening and interrupt the escalation of negativity. To be recomposed requires a minimum of two people to calmly bring it back together in a cooperative process by similarity to relationships that when they suffer disruptions require the cooperation of all concerned in order to be restored.

This effect is achieved through the programming of the electromagnet, which is instructed to remain on while the lamp is open to make it impossible for a single person to close it.

The applied material also participates in its conceptual message. The material of the diffuser elements is produced by ETE (Emulsified Thermoplastic Engineering) process, a thermoplastic technopolymer loaded with post-consumer waste from the milling of composites, fiberglass and polystyrene from the demolition of boats or buildings [24]. The design of matter, therefore, enters the design of the product by building an analogy between the regeneration of human relations and materials.

EVE is designed to draw attention to the other and to the solidity of the emotional bond emphasizing the relationship and the sharing of experiences both positive or negative feelings [25]. The awareness of one's own actions helps to improve lives of other family members as well.

Fig. 1. EVE. Design: Marzia Micelisopo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella, with contributions from Gabriele Pontillo, Mario Malinconico, Salvatore Mallardo, Maurizio Avella.

Fig. 1. EVE. Design: Marzia Micelisopo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella, with contributions from Gabriele Pontillo, Mario Malinconico, Salvatore Mallardo, Maurizio Avella.

Beatclose

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.63.pdf

Several scientific studies have shown that when people have a strong emotional bond they embrace each other, are close, and look into each other's eyes certain physiological parameters such as heart rate tend to synchronize and produce biochemicals such as oxytocin, dopamine, and vasopressin that help reduce anxiety and stress, regularize blood pressure, and sometimes even boost immunity [26]. When one cannot be physically close, these beneficial effects are missed.

The Beatclose project (Fig. 2) proposes a solution to the problem of long-distance relationships addressed in projects such as those described above (Pillow Talk, Bond) through an innovative wearable object. It is a belt that can be worn under or over clothing, capable of establishing a connection between two distant people by enabling the sharing of moments, experiences, emotions, and feelings in daily life. Worn all day long by both people, it allows them to be connected at all times and exchange mutual inputs such as heartbeat, the "squeezing" feeling of a hug, body heat, and even one's own scent.

The project was developed for people who, for work or pleasure, tend to change their place of residence often, while maintaining stable affections as well as the desire to live intensely with family and sentimental relationships in order not to lose the link with their humanity and roots [27]. Added to this need were the instances due to the social distancing imposed by the Covid19 health emergency that forced families and friends to live for even very long periods away from each other without being able to meet physically. According to Istat data, long-distance relationships are a phenomenon that involves about 8 percent of Italians, or nearly 4 million people.

The band incorporates: a system of microsensors mounted on textile supports, which allow the acquisition of income data detected by contact with the user, such as changes in body temperature and heart rate; an Arduino Nano pro board, which controls microcontrollers, accelerometer, Bluetooth boards, rechargeable batteries; an Adafruit DRV2605L Haptic Motor Controller board that controls small haptic motors to transmit vibrations and stresses similar to hand touch; micro-spindles that tighten and release a matrix of thin cables inserted into the band to simulate the hugging effect; two
films of AILOVA Pi, which heats up to return the effect of increasing body temperature and to activate the release of aromas contained in thin felts "loaded" with the scent of the loved person.

The design of the interaction between the user and the device makes use of natural gestures. The design of interactions evokes natural affective gestures. When one wraps his arms around the waist, as if simulating a hug, the other person feels a squeeze; when he caresses the belly, the other perceives warmth and scent; finally, when the heartbeat increases because of a physical effort or a strong emotion, the other feels a vibration. Such intuitive actions give the two people the feeling of being close in a new and different form of digital proximity.

Fig. 2. Beatclose. Design: Licia Maraziti. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella and Luigi Maffei with contributions from Gabriele Pontillo, Roberta Angari, and Valentina Perricone.

Fig. 2. Beatclose. Design: Licia Maraziti. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella and Luigi Maffei with contributions from Gabriele Pontillo, Roberta Angari, and Valentina Perricone.

Riflessi

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The Riflessi project (Fig. 3) is focused on the moment of meal as an emblem of conviviality to open up gaps of intimacy and reciprocity between people. The project consists of a dining table that incorporates a mirror in the middle band, configured and sized to allow people sitting at the table to intercept each other's gaze while eating, so as to establish involuntary eye contact. The gaze is the most expressive part of a person that enables understanding of moods and emotions. The meeting of glances provides an opportunity to overcome the barriers of opacity, inattention, and indifference observed in many families. Near the mirror, the table is covered with thermochromic black paint, with a transition temperature close to body temperature that invites people to push their hands beyond the boundary of their station to determine the color change until they touch each other's hands. Fostering the chance meeting of glances and hands amounts, braking distances, provoking mutual attention, re-establishing contact to recall lost proximity, how it feels to be close. A way to rediscover the resilience of human relationships, of intersubjectivity, to realize that we are repositories of a depth that was impossible to realize on our own [28].

Fig. 3. Riflessi. Design: Marina Rinaldi. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Fig. 3. Riflessi. Design: Marina Rinaldi. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Hybrid-ism & Multi-Ethnicity

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The project was developed in the course Hybrid-ism & Multi-Ethnicity, taught in two editions in 2014 and 2015, as part of an International Exchange proposed by Mariella Poli, from the California College of Arts in San Francisco, between CCA students and design students from the Second University of Naples, as part of the Hybrid Design Lab. The focus of the action was the comparison between Naples and San Francisco in terms of immigration issues, cultural hybridizations between rituals, habits, knowledge, strategies, and tools for tolerance, as well as the interchange of cultures. The course flowed into two expositions of the results for each year, held in both San Francisco and Science City. The first step toward the project consisted of in-depth knowledge of data, official and unofficial, on immigration in Naples, its size, characteristics, and local specificities, as well as the living and working conditions of the immigrants present. In the Neapolitan capital there are 68,000 immigrants, mainly from countries in Asia ( 45 percent), Eastern Europe ( 37 percent), Africa ( 11 percent), and Latin America (7 percent). One in four immigrants in Naples is Sri Lankan, nearly one in five is Ukrainian and one in ten is Chinese. Half of the foreigners living in the Neapolitan capital come from these three countries.

The projects developed in the Hybrid Design Lab sought to open a breach in the opacity of the hectic daily Neapolitan life. Gaps of cultural and social contamination and integration through mutual awareness of Neapolitans and foreigners on the opportunities to learn from each other's cultures, on the value of listening and meeting glances for a coherent and harmonious socio-cultural cohesion.

In developing the different projects, we have chosen to propose a common approach that binds them together as a common thread, interpreting objects as cultural devices, bearers of meanings and thinking that respond to the problems identified by breaking the mold, so as to prompt users to question themselves, to prompt them to reflect on issues of hybridization. Questioning artifacts, which are proposed as opportunities to wonder about something because they appear different from what they seem, that surprise and destabilize, allowing people to pause to read his own thoughts and what they contain. As a result, the object becomes an opportunity to reflect breaking the sterile habits of thought that are the first obstacles to integration. Taken-for-granted automatisms are challenged to open fans to new opportunities and new possibilities to interpret things and diversity dialogically.

Those, become devices that make themselves bearers of the preciousness of certain cultures, which can teach the Neapolitans about different ways of seeing things, alternative solutions, ancient cultures, and layered knowledge that deserve admiration and respect.

Skin Different

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The 'Skin Different' project (Fig. 4), is based on the diversity of skin colors of immigrants in Campania. After analyzing the most multi-ethnic passing places in which an activity of daily observation and reporting, at different times of the day, of the attitudes of passers-by was conducted. Indifference, lack of dialogue, even impatience between locals and immigrants emerged. The project was born, therefore, with the aim of transforming places of passing and indifference into places of attention and curiosity towards the different, to help break down the barriers of ethnic/cultural differences and make people understand that "diversity" is an added value. The goal of promoting rapprochement between migrants and the local community was pursued through an urban installation based on mirrors colored with shades similar to the different skin tones of the different ethnic groups in Campania, so that those who look in the mirror can see their own skin of a different color. The mirror is no longer a reflection of the self, but an instrument of identification with the other, as an urban expedient to provoke empathy, to discover with surprise, curiosity and amusement, what it feels like to pass from one's appearance to another.

Mirrors applied as transparent films outside on portions of storefronts become an element of urban ethical communication, reflecting chromatically altered identity according to skin pantone palettes. When people walk by, they are caught off guard by a different image of themselves. With their minds engaged in the hectic thoughts of everyday life, they come across as more porous, more open to transformation and empathy toward people of different ethnicities, without defenses. Skin color changes, and with it, viewpoints change. The person walks and in the transition empathizes with different ethnicities, changing skin, race and perception of others. The space transforms people and they change the space through their own reflected images. The project will have a hashtag where everyone will have the opportunity to share their photos with different skin colors.

Fig. 4. Skin Different. Design: Alessia Postiglione, with Paolo Emilio Colombo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Fig. 4. Skin Different. Design: Alessia Postiglione, with Paolo Emilio Colombo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Nausicaa&Partenope

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It is a set designed for consuming both coffee and tea that integrates rituals related to domestic hospitality between Neapolitans and Moroccans (Fig. 5). According to ISTAT data, one of the largest communities in Naples is the Moroccan community, which accounts for more than 10 percent of the foreign population. Hospitality for these two cultures is a fundamental value for both cultures, but it develops in totally different ways, actions and times. In the Neapolitan culture, domestic hospitality takes place through the ritual of offering a cup of coffee, although the process from preparation to consumption is very quick, becomes a pretext to estrange oneself from the outside world and focus on conversation with the other. In Moroccan culture, on the other hand, hospitality is expressed through the ritual of the offering of green mint tea, which has a long preparation, involves predetermined actions and events, and should be drunk over a long period of time and in short sips to fully savoir the intensity.

Nausicaa&Partenope wants to hybridise and unite these two cultures, offering the possibility of sharing the ritual through the ancient gestures of hospitality with a single set. The set consists of a blown glass bottle and two small glasses that double as stackable stoppers. The bottle with its clean and minimal lines is enriched with a graphic design that reinterprets, unites, and combines the traditional patterns of Neapolitan and Moroccan culture. The transparency of the glass manages to intersect the two different patterns, creating multiple intersections and graphics at each new vantage point. The two glasses take their shape from the study and reinterpretation of the classic shape of the Moroccan tea glass and the Neapolitan coffee cup. In fact, the tea glass retains the traditionally detailed graphics, while the coffee cup is made of milk-white layered glass with a satin finish to echo the classic Neapolitan ceramic cup. In this series, the coffee cup is smaller and is placed inside the tea glass. This position emphasises the Neapolitan culture as the offspring of Moroccan culture in order to encourage respect from locals for foreigners.

Fig. 5. Nausicaa&Partenope. Design: Sara Nappa with Francesco Dell'Aglio. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Fig. 5. Nausicaa&Partenope. Design: Sara Nappa with Francesco Dell'Aglio. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Putogether

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The purpose of the project is to bring together different ethnic groups in a single social event to encourage socialization, sharing, and gathering (Fig. 6). The intent is to create more opportunities that encourage interaction and integration between Neapolitan citizens and the different communities living in Naples. The project is based on the idea of devising a periodic event to be held in public places such as parks or squares where the communities present in Naples, such as Chinese, Ukrainians, Indians, Sinhalese, Poles, and Moroccans, meet with each other and with natives in order to eat together. Everyone brings food from their own country to share with others for the purpose of creating convivial complicity and thus integration. This goal is realized in an object that consists of a modular table made up of shelves with shared feet that chain together in hexagonal holes to form long tables with multiple modes of configuration: linear, alternating, circular, semi-circular, and free. Each of the shelves is treated with elements typical of the visual culture of different cultures so that everyone can recognize his or her own table and pick it up to attach it to the others. The tables can only support themselves if they are combined with each other. The interlocking becomes, thus, a sharing tool for people to interact and socialize with each other. In addition, the project also incorporated the study of different habits of sitting and eating at a table related to each ethnic community. The table leg is, in fact, also stackable so that the height of the table can be changed according to one's preferences.

Fig. 6. Putogether. Design: Teresa Iavarone with Paolo Emilio Colombo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Fig. 6. Putogether. Design: Teresa Iavarone with Paolo Emilio Colombo. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Simen

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It is an urban bench with the aim of raising awareness among Neapolitans about the migration situation in the country, creating and promoting moments of interaction between migrant and local communities and fostering intercultural exchanges (Fig. 7).

From the interviews conducted with immigrants, the meetings made with some associations and the experiences lived among the streets of Naples, it emerged that one of the most widespread problems of immigrants is the possibility of being able to tell their stories. This represents one of the main goals of the project: to create opportunities to do so through an urban game.

The objective is to make the game usable as urban furniture-game at bus stops, subway stations, or school exits, as places for people to wait and meet. Through this game, immigrants become experts in foreign lands, being able to explain the rules and give something of themselves to those who welcome them back home.

In addition, a goal of the project is also to create a time of gathering with other people who are around to watch the players, just as happens in the countries of origin of this game.

Simen features a wooden top supported by two stone bases, which accommodates both the seating of the player-adventurers and the game. It also offers the possibility of resuming the typical African way of sitting astride during the game, in addition to the standard seating.

The bench is a kind of giant Mancala board with the dips in the center to accommodate the seeds during the game.

Fig. 7. Simen. Design: Martina Panico with Francesco dell'Aglio. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Fig. 7. Simen. Design: Martina Panico with Francesco dell'Aglio. The project was coordinated by Carla Langella.

Conclusions

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The projects described aim at improving the quality of relationships between people through awareness of the mistakes everyone makes due to busy lives, such as not dwelling on the feelings of others, the impact of one's actions and choices on others, and the state of well-being of the people with whom one interacts. Such awareness is the terrain of psychotherapy and sociology, but Design can also intervene through the ability to visually or with other kinds of sensory stimuli emphasize information and data that testify to events and relational states.

The Campania region geo-political context in which The Hybrid Design Lab is locatd, in southern Italy, has strongly conditioned the development of the systemic-relational projects. These reflect some peculiar characteristics of the territory in psycho-sociological terms such as: the aptitude for social cohesion, flexibility, adaptability, the ability to circumvent obstacles or to turn a crisis into an opportunity with alternative solutions, but also relational empathy, the tendency to collaborate and share, and the ability to condition and fascinate through storytelling.

These are all elements that constitute potentialities to be highlighted and enhanced through the design of artifacts that, through complex ways, foster these characters and translate them into attitudes and approaches to thinking.

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The original version of this eBook is available on https://www.scientific.net/book/engineering-innovations-vol-8/978-3-0364-1230-6

Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 81-97

doi: 10.4028/p-1xJaWG

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-09-22

Revised:
2023-10-01

Accepted:
2023-10-01

Online:
2024-01-03

Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.81.pdf

NIGLIO Mariangela

¹Conservator of Architectural and Environmental Assets, PHD at DARCH Department of Architecture of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, University of Palermo, Italy

mangelaniglio@hotmail.com

Keywords: Ancient architecture, tradition, innovation in the past, natural materials, sustainability, basalt, construction tradition, raw earth

Abstract

This work shows some examples of architecture that have been able to combine the cultural and technological traditions of the places in which they are located with elements of innovation. The theme of respect for tradition in the great architecture of the past is discussed in the first part of the chapter. Three examples of great Italian architecture were chosen in which elements of innovation are inserted into projects in which the architect has chosen to respect the pre-existing structures. Subsequently, the use of materials and construction techniques belonging to the local tradition is discussed innovatively and continuously over time. Finally, some examples of contemporary architecture are displayed in which the designers have decided to respect traditions to make the works they propose better communicate with the environment, territory and society. Respecting traditional materials also turns out to be a method for creating eco-sustainable architecture.

Introduction

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When you create a new architectural work you often find yourself having to communicate with what already exists. One's ideas cannot always be guided only by emotions but must take into account the social and cultural context, as well as the urban and architectural. The new buildings or squares must often be placed in a rich urban context, with works worthy of respect and already historicized. The designer's creativity is tested and his ideas must come to a compromise.

Not only does this happen in current times but also in the past. Architects of great caliber have found themselves having to tackle projects on existing buildings or in a very strong cultural background. They were asked to create something that honored the client and was representative of the historical time. There are several testimonies of architects who have decided to overturn the existing in favor of the new but also testimonies of architects who have created works still remembered today, created respecting the existing and ancient traditions but in vain and creating architectural masterpieces.

Today we are increasingly witnessing major climate changes. Traditional architecture somehow respects the environment and the landscape by exploiting the material resources available. Each project is different as it is the expression of a personal idea and a different territorial reality. When developing a project there is no single effective method or strategy. The creative genesis is made up of various strategies which, in recent years, have been aimed above all at respect for the environment and pre-existing structures have taken on greater value.

A fundamental element of many current projects is based on the local building tradition. Starting from this, we arrive at finding innovative solutions that can make the most of natural resources and better adapt architecture to its social and natural environment. The ability of architects today consists of finding innovation by exploiting the construction traditions of places. "Tradition does not mean closure, immobility. On the contrary, the value of traditions lies in their being open to innovations. Tradition is not the opposite of innovation, but rather its complement" [1]. This statement by Alvaro Siza is significant for the current trends in contemporary architecture. But how did architects deal with the existing in the past?

Methodology and Structure

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This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section describes some examples of innovation that started from tradition in the great architecture of the past. There are only three examples of historic Italian architecture, those considered most significant for the topic covered. The second section describes traditional architecture and, especially, there are some examples to understand the use of local materials in an innovative way and traditional construction methods as a starting point for innovative architectural solutions. The third section is a discussion with some examples of the use of traditional systems with innovation in contemporary architecture. The last section is a conclusion, with a perspective for the future.

Historic Architecture

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Even the great architects of the past found themselves faced with projects for which their creativity was put to the test by pre-existence. If in ancient times it was preferred to erase what had been created, in more recent times, especially from the Renaissance onwards, pre-existences takes on a Cultural Value and therefore must be respected. This is the situation that Filippo Brunelleschi found himself having to face with the project for the dome of Santa Maria in Fiore in Florence, the great Michelangelo Buonarroti when, in 1561 he was entrusted with the task of restoring the ancient baths of Diocletian in Rome and Francesco Borromini with the projects for the Saint Charles at the Four Fountains complex in Rome. The sensibility of these great architects was manifested in their approach to the existing and their creativity allowed them to create particular architectural works.

Dome of Florence Cathedral. At the beginning of the 1400s, Italy and Europe witnessed a rediscovery of the values of the past. With the rediscovery of the remains of the buildings of Imperial Rome, baths, basilicas, and temples became a point of reference for all artists and architects to remodulate the language of medieval art to build a new one that finds its ancient origin. Giorgio Vasari defines this movement as a "rebirth" while in more modern times the entire period is defined as the "Renaissance" [2]. Several art and architecture scholars analyzed the ancient architecture to understand its language. The ancient architectures are not copied but inspiration is drawn from them to create something new and innovative.

Among the first architects in Italy who broke the mold by proposing innovative solutions starting from tradition was Filippo Brunelleschi. He already showed himself to be an innovator in the creation of the tile for the competition for the construction of the second door of the baptistery of San Giovanni. In his panel Brunelleschi, while remaining faithful to classical themes, decides to insert a new spatial concept, with some figures that emerge from the physical limits imposed by the frame while others are pushed in forcefully. The artist, in his composition, captures the drama of the moment, distancing himself from his contemporaries who, in a scene taken from a biblical episode, preferred to represent the serenity due to faith. The competition was won by Lorenzo Ghiberti but the studies for the tile were the starting point for subsequent ones which led him to the invention of the method for representing real objects as they are seen in space: perspective. Thanks to his ingenuity he was entrusted with the project for the construction of the dome of the Florence Cathedral (Fig. 1).

The dome, due to its size and structure, has been considered an architectural masterpiece since its creation. It is the symbol of Florence and the Renaissance. Its construction took place between the years 1420 and 1436 and it is the largest masonry vault in the world. Already in the fourteenth century, when the church was built, a dome had been planned but due to its size it was never built. Brunelleschi decided to create a masonry structure with Gothic shapes that recall the original style of the cathedral but brought innovations from a technological point of view. The architect balanced the dome through the use of a double cap, built without the use of armor but with a self-supporting system that also included bricks arranged in a herringbone pattern. The two caps, two coplanar domes, were made of bricks and stones. Each canopy is made up of eight sails and is held together by twenty-four median and ten parallel ribs. The ladder used for the uphill path towards the lantern, located to close the structure, is placed between the two caps in the cavity. The interior of the structure, with lighter materials at the top and heavier at the bottom, is mainly made of bricks, while the exterior is covered
with terracotta tiles with ribs made of white marble. Overall, the dome is considered Renaissance, because it is a volume defined in space that dominates rationally but does not differ from Gothic forms, connecting with the existing in an exemplary way [3].

Fig. 1. Florence cathedral and Brunelleschi's dome (Ph. by Salvatore Niglio 2019).

Fig. 1. Florence cathedral and Brunelleschi's dome (Ph. by Salvatore Niglio 2019).

Michelangelo and Saint Mary of the Angels and Martyrs. In 1561 Pope Pius IV entrusted Michelangelo Buonarroti, now elderly and at the peak of his artistic career, with the works for the transformation of the tepidarium of the Baths of Diocletian in a church. The architect in those years was working on the completion of St. Peter's Basilica, a project which however he never saw complete. For the great Basilica he initially solved the structural problems that had worried previous architects, but he decided to create something different than those who had preceded him. However, the approach to the project for the new church commissioned by Pius IV which was to be dedicated to the Virgin and the angels is different. For this latest project, Michelangelo decided to respect a large part of the existing structures, initiating a form of respect for tradition, exploiting the existing, innovating the forms and using the natural lighting coming from the existing windows. He intervened in the thermal complex demonstrating a modern and non-destructive attitude even if far from what can be defined as "archaeological restoration".

Michelangelo's intervention was aimed above all at preserving the Roman walls by restoring the hall tepidarium showing a non-destructive and modern attitude towards what was left of the past. He limited himself to reinforcing the existing walls, creating some partition walls to delimit the spans of the naves, covered with cross vaults, and adding two square side chapels, thus creating an ecclesiastical building outside the canons of the time.

The new church had three entrances: one on the current Piazza della Repubblica, concave in shape, built respecting what remained of the Roman exedra (Fig. 2), and the others positioned on the sides of the transept. The altar was also placed on the transverse axis rather than on the longitudinal one, as was customary, and the space was expanded laterally rather than longitudinally [4]. The square rooms of the ancient baths and the rotunda on the opposite side were transformed into vestibules and were equipped with porticoes. In this way, it was possible to reduce the new works in favor of the
construction of a long Carthusian choir. All the walls and vaults were plastered in white and the only note of color was given by the eight giant columns in front of the walls made of reddish granite. The interior space was conceived as the true aesthetic object of the architecture, with lighting playing an important part. The vestibule was lit only by a lantern and the choir windows brought little light into the side rooms, creating dim light. The eight large ancient windows of the clerestory, however, illuminated the entire central room from above.

In the 18th century, the church was renovated in the late Baroque style. Columns and decorations typical of the period were added, closer to the original decoration of the tepidarium, and far from the typical austerity of the sixteenth century. The side entrances were closed and two chapels were built in their place. Although the space designed by Michelangelo was not remodeled, the impression one has today is completely different from that desired by the great architect who favored the essence of the structures as they had survived until his time.

Fig. 2. The facade of the church of Saint Mary of Angels and Martyrs in Rome (from https://www.romanoimpero.com/2022/10/sotto-s-maria-degli-angeli-e-dei-martiri.html).

Fig. 2. The facade of the church of Saint Mary of Angels and Martyrs in Rome (from https://www.romanoimpero.com/2022/10/sotto-s-maria-degli-angeli-e-dei-martiri.html).

Saint Charles at the Four Fountains. The project for the church of Saint Charles at the Four Fountains (also called "San Carlino" due to its small size) occupied the architect Francesco Borromini both at the beginning of his career and at the end. Between 1634 and 1644 he was commissioned to design and build the church, the convent and the cloister of Saint Charles at the Four Fountains for the Order of the Discalced Trinitarians and, in 1655, the facade of the church. The architect immediately finds himself faced with the small space in which to insert all the works requested of him.

Having to respect the pre-existing structures, Borromini did not have much freedom of movement in the conception of a new work. We are in the midst of the Baroque period and, according to the taste of the time, the architecture had to create visual effects that surprised visitors and was characterized by richness and monumentality. Borromini's creativity was put to work especially when, in 1655, he was entrusted with the project for the facade of the church. The facades, in the Baroque period, were characterized by celebratory and scenographic solutions and lost the
architectural meaning that was typical of previous years. The reference to the ancient in this period increasingly becomes a pretext for experimenting and finding new and spectacular solutions.

This is the case of the church of Saint Charles at the Four Fountains. Already in designing the plan of the church, Borromini found himself having to face problems regarding space. The little space available and the need to respect the previous structures did not allow the creation of a work that respected the taste of the time. He, however, managed to achieve something unique. He combined three different types of structure in this church: the lower, wavy part recalls some structures from the late Roman period; the intermediate part with the plumes that support the dome above draws inspiration from churches with a Greek cross plan; and finally, the dome, oval in shape, connects to the base shape [5]. With great creativity he achieved his goal by combining three different geometric shapes in a small space, arousing admiration in his contemporaries and inspiration in the architects of subsequent centuries.

Fig. 3. The facade of the church of Saint Charles at the Four Fountains in Rome (from http://www.turismoculturale.org/visitesancarlino.htm.

Fig. 3. The facade of the church of Saint Charles at the Four Fountains in Rome (from http://www.turismoculturale.org/visitesancarlino.htm.

The entire monumental complex is characterized by its surprisingly small dimensions and the extreme simplicity of the materials, in accordance with the rule and spirituality of the friars of the Trinitarian order, but also with the artistic ideas of Borromini who preferred humble materials such as plaster to precious materials. and stucco, to be ennobled with the technique.

The facade was not erected immediately. We had to wait a few more decades for his project, the last work of Francesco Borromini, begun in 1665 and completed in 1667. The decoration of the facade continued after his death until completion in 1682. Today there are still many original projects left for the church, which Borromini had created to find a solution that suited two important needs: the lowest possible cost and the maximum use of the little space available. The position was not the easiest, as it was positioned next to a rounded corner of the intersection between Via del Quirinale and Via delle Quattro Fontane. Thanks to the skilful use of the available materials and shapes, the work stands out from the surrounding buildings both from a decorative and chromatic point of view.

The articulation system, which combines a small and a gigantic order, derives from Michelangelo's Capitoline palaces and from the facade of Saint Peter where Borromini had begun to work. But he used this Michelangelo system in a completely new way. The facade consists of three sectors; below, the two external concave sectors and the central convex sector are linked together by the robust, continuous and wavy entablature; above, the three sectors are concave and the entablature takes place in three separate segments (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the oval medallion supported by angels and dominated by the onion-shaped element cancels the effect of the cornice as a horizontal barrier. The compactness of this facade, with the minimum wall space, densely filled with columns, sculptures and plastic decoration, which never lets the eye rest for long, is typical of the Baroque. Thanks to the genius of the architect, who was able to combine Roman tradition, respecting the existing, and Baroque innovation, the church and the entire complex can be counted among the greatest products of Baroque architecture.

Traditional Architecture

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Since ancient times, men have had great innovative abilities which have manifested themselves above all in traditional architecture and spontaneous construction. Each population has always tended to exploit the resources at its disposal by trying to create increasingly innovative solutions capable of making the lives of those who lived there as comfortable as possible. Despite this, even today when we talk about tradition we almost feel uncomfortable because they evoke constraints that we are not always willing to overcome. However, tradition can also be a guide, an example to draw inspiration from to find increasingly innovative architectural solutions. This is what can be seen in the architecture of the different regions. In the past, architects but also simple builders have used materials coming from the surrounding area. There is therefore, for example, the use of travertine in the Lazio area, the use of basalt on the slopes of Vesuvius and Etna and tuff in the Ragusa areas.

Materials. The use of local stones as a building material has been widely documented since very ancient times. It is known that man has always used what he had available. Over the centuries this habit has never changed and today we find entire cities built with local materials. This is the case of the city of Catania, whose main characteristic is the black color given by the basalt used in different ways. Several written historical sources testify to how this stone is suitable for construction. It is so present that it has also become a fundamental element of the built landscape. Reusing lava, because that is what it is, to build had almost the aim of exorcizing the destructive force of Etna and making coexistence with the volcano peaceful [6].

The use of lava as a building material is documented in several ancient documents. Especially since the beginning of the 19th century, several scholars have analyzed the use of lava as a building material in areas where volcanoes are present. Even in the previous century, the various travelers who visited the island in search of ancient remains admired the wise and conscious use of local materials [7].

Even today it is possible to see how the natural elements coming from the volcano are constantly used in masonry, plaster and road paving. Due to their particular characteristics, basalt and lava azole are suitable for the construction of walls and plasters resistant to atmospheric agents and recurring telluric movements. Often the basaltic elements are left without any plaster covering, making the wall texture itself a decoration for the building.

This is the case of Porta Garibaldi, built in 1768 based on a design by Stefano Ittar (Fig. 4). The architect uses traditional materials, basalt and limestone typical of the areas south of Catania, to create a decoration that makes one of the access gates to the city unique and recognizable. Precisely for the defensive function typical of city gates, a very resistant local traditional material was chosen. Even the rest of the surrounding walls, since medieval times, were built with basalt blocks and, in many sections, they still resist today together with the watchtowers.

Fig. 4. Catania, Porta Garibaldi (from https://fondoambiente.it/luoghi/porta-garibaldi?ldc).

Fig. 4. Catania, Porta Garibaldi (from https://fondoambiente.it/luoghi/porta-garibaldi?ldc).

Basalt in Catania is also used for numerous decorative elements, first of all the "u liotru" symbol of the city. It is a monumental fountain positioned in the center of Piazza Duomo and whose main element is "u liotru", an elephant carved in basalt now considered the symbol of the city. The fountain was created by Giovan Battista Vaccarini as part of the reconstruction of Etna city after the earthquake of 11 January 1693. Also in this case the alternation between the white of the marble and the black of the basalt makes the work particular and the use of limestone for the elephant's tusks and eyes makes it realistic (Fig. 5). In the same Piazza Duomo, several buildings meet, also built in different periods. They all have in common the characteristic black color given by the basalt and the lava azole used in the plasters (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Catania, Elephant Fountain (Ph. 2019).

Fig. 5. Catania, Elephant Fountain (Ph. 2019).

Fig. 6. Catania, Piazza Duomo (Ph. 2015).

Fig. 6. Catania, Piazza Duomo (Ph. 2015).

Other examples of the use of basalt in different eras can be found in the church of Sant'Agata prison (Fig. 8). Here it is possible to notice the different walls: the innermost medieval ones, belonging to the structures of the medieval urban wall, the outermost ones belonging to the reinforcement built in the 16th century. Furthermore, these include the walls belonging to the Roman structures, all made with Etna basalt. The type of wall changes but the use of local stone does not change, as it is more suitable for the purpose and cheaper than others that come from distant areas.

Fig. 7. Catania, Cathedral (Ph 2015).

Fig. 7. Catania, Cathedral (Ph 2015).

Fig. 8. Catania, the church of Sant'Agata Prison (Ph. 2016).

Fig. 8. Catania, the church of Sant'Agata Prison (Ph. 2016).

The use of basalt is constant and continuous over time both in Catania and in the areas of the province that are in direct contact with Etna. Even in the surrounding inhabited centers it is possible to notice the same constant and continuous use over time, demonstrating that technological innovation can always respect the local construction tradition (Fig. 9).

A final example is the use of basalt on the south-west side of Etna and in a less recent era. This is the case of the "Saracen Bridge" of Adrano which, due to its beauty, is considered among the thirty most beautiful bridges in Italy (Fig. 10). It is a stone bridge, probably built in Roman times but rebuilt and modified starting from the Islamic period, which allows the crossing of the Simeto river between Adrano, in the province of Catania, and Centuripe, in the province of Enna. Of the Roman structures, the bases of the main arch remain which were left by the Arabs when, following the occupation of the territory, they wanted to restore the activity of the bridge which had probably collapsed due to a flood of the Simeto river. The Arabs, in this way, replaced the damaged Roman structures with new structures built according to their canons, taking care of the chromatic effects, with the alternation of dark stones and light stones in the ring nuts of the arches, and modifying the shape, inserting the arch pointed arch typical of Islamic architecture. In this way, respecting the tradition of using basalt as a local building material, the structure is lightened and streamlined, ensuring that it lasts over time. Given its position, along the important road axis that connected the city of Troina with the city of Catania, the bridge was reinforced during the Norman period and also in subsequent periods, especially after the earthquake of 1693 which caused severe damage to the structures.

When the road system in the area was modified at the end of the 1700s, the bridge lost its importance and was gradually abandoned. In 1948 a flood destroyed part of the structures. These were rebuilt with different shapes and of the original structure only the central arch remains today, with a pointed arch [8].

Fig. 9. Acireale, basalt fountain (Ph. 2016).

Fig. 9. Acireale, basalt fountain (Ph. 2016).

Fig. 10. Adrano, Saracen bridge (Ph. 2023).

Fig. 10. Adrano, Saracen bridge (Ph. 2023).

Construction tradition. Respect for construction tradition with an eye to technological innovations is visible even further north in the province of Catania. In the province of Messina, there are several religious buildings with particular characteristics. They have clear references to Arab Architecture but were built in the Norman Era. These are cubes, small religious buildings located in the northern area of Etna but also churches present on the Ionian coast.

An example among all is the church of Saints Pietro and Paolo of Agrò, built along the Agrò stream in the province of Messina between 1117 and 1172 (Fig. 11). The dating of the church is deduced from a document that reports the news of the foundation of the church commissioned by Roger II in 1117. Following the earthquake of 1169, which severely hit all of eastern Sicily and southern Calabria, the church was restored and brought back to new condition, as can be deduced from the date engraved on the entrance portal. The inscription, in Greek and dated according to the Arabic calendar, also reports the name of the person who wanted the reconstruction, the protomaster Girardo il Franco. In these few elements, it is already possible to notice references to local tradition: the language used for the inscription, Greek, refers to the Monastery of SS Salvatore and the monks of San Basilio, who still used Greek in official documents; the dating according to the Arabic calendar brings back the local custom which saw Islamic customs and traditions, still rooted in the territory. The architectural layout constitutes a mix of styles, between the basilica layout with three naves and a tri-apsidal transept, typical of Christian structures, and the central layout typical of structures of the Byzantine tradition.

The architectural composition presents several particularities due precisely to the mix of styles. The main nave has a central dome set on a high cylindrical drum. The connection with the circular shutter of the dome occurs through brick arches which progressively bring the quadrangular shape to the circular shape. A similar solution occurs for the dome located at the intersection with the transept. This, smaller in size, presents a more complex solution composed of hanging arches that bring the quadrangular shape of the base to an octagonal shape and then to the cylindrical shape of the base of the dome. The spatial articulations adopted for the two domes refer to explicit construction repertoires
typical of Islamic workers, a sign that those who wanted the building to be built respected local construction traditions.

A common feature of all the churches in Val Demone is the attention to the external appearance of the building, with the use of lava stone from Etna and pink marble from the quarries of Taormina together with local limestone and bricks. The alternation of these materials, with the bricks arranged in rows, in a herringbone and sawtooth pattern, alternating with the local sandstone and carefully arranged blocks of basalt and marble, gives the building a unique and recognizable appearance. Whoever wanted and built the church, in this case, respected the local construction tradition, used easily available materials, and inserted stylistic innovations that made the work unique [9].

Fig. 11. Church of Saints Peter and Paolo of Agrò, Casalvecchio Siculo (Me), (Ph. 2017).

Fig. 11. Church of Saints Peter and Paolo of Agrò, Casalvecchio Siculo (Me), (Ph. 2017).

Another example of a construction tradition that has endured over the years is the Trullo. The Trullo building typology belongs to what is defined as spontaneous architecture, made with local, poor materials and with wall structures built without the help of binders. This particular building typology is present only in the Puglia region and its origins are linked to the society of the places and the geological conformation of the place.

The Trulli are an expression of Apulian peasant culture and are still scattered throughout the countryside of the Itria valley. They are small structures, rectangular with truncated pyramid roofs or circular with ogival roofs, and the construction technique is strongly linked to the geological conformation. They are present in places with rocky terrain since they are based directly on the rock and it is the construction material of the trullo itself.

The very thick walls are made with rough limestone stones collected directly from the surrounding fields and dry, that is, without the use of lime. The conical roofs rest directly on the load-bearing walls and are made up of successive layers of gray limestone slabs which give them their traditional appearance. The covering cone is closed by a pinnacle bearing propitiatory decorative motifs. This type of structure, with the high thickness of the walls and the few windows, allows for excellent thermal insulation, guaranteeing coolness in summer and warmth in winter.

In the past they were used as shelters for farmers or for shepherds or, in any case, had a use strictly connected to the agricultural life of the places. Today, given the particularity of the structures, the trulli are highly sought after and are restored to be inhabited by tourists or, more generally, by those who want to spend their holidays in Puglia. Various accommodation facilities offer trullo accommodation but various people choose to live there permanently, restoring the structures so as not to alter the structural and environmental characteristics (Fig. 12) [10].

Fig. 12. Trulli, hotel "Fascino Antico" in Martina Franca (TA), (Ph. by Salvatore D'Anna, 2015).

Fig. 12. Trulli, hotel "Fascino Antico" in Martina Franca (TA), (Ph. by Salvatore D'Anna, 2015).

Innovation and tradition in contemporary architecture

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Today, current trends aim to use choices that are increasingly respectful of the environment, more sustainable and that exploit natural resources in a conscious and less polluting manner. Historically, as already explained, the building materials were the most available and others that did not belong to the local tradition were rarely used. Respect for traditions has accentuated the search for innovative solutions.

Raw earth. Among the historically oldest materials are raw earth bricks. Composed of a mixture of earth, water and clay dried in the sun, they were for several centuries the construction material of the simplest buildings but also the most complex and elaborate ones. The Tower of Babel was built with raw earth bricks in the 7th century B.C., the palace of Minos in Crete in 2000 B.C. and several other even more recent buildings. In Sicily, archaeological discoveries of buildings in which the most used material was raw earth are frequent. This material was used on the island from the prehistoric period up to, in a less significant way, the present day [11]. Attention towards this material has increased in recent years, above all thanks to numerous studies that requalify raw earth as a sustainable and environmentally friendly building material [12]

The current demand for sustainable interventions, for materials that respect the environment and solutions that involve minimal intervention, have favored the rediscovery of ancient construction systems and, in this case, of those that use raw earth bricks precisely for their ecological qualities. The decline of raw earth architecture arises from the needs of the industrialized society that replaced the rural one.

After the Second World War, with the reconstruction of cities damaged by bombing, traditional construction techniques were abandoned in favor of more modern ones. Seismic events and the new rules for construction in seismic zones subsequently imposed the use of reinforced concrete considered more resistant than brick, stone or raw earth wall structures. However, traditional construction techniques are not always unsuitable for seismic areas. On the contrary, if not modified inappropriately over the years, they are more suitable than reinforced concrete for buildings in areas subject to strong seismic events.

The growing interest in raw earth and its low environmental impact has allowed the development of new technological studies. In various countries, innovation processes towards architecture with raw earth bricks are increasingly widespread. In Europe, given the widespread diffusion of the raw earth tradition until the Industrial Revolution, these studies are more frequent than in other areas. In Italy the recovery processes of raw earth architecture with the most suitable restoration techniques are widespread, especially in the Sardinia region where the in-depth knowledge of the material and its use in traditional architecture has allowed them to be used for new constructions, creating buildings in a sustainable and environmentally friendly [13]. Also in other regions of Italy, the use of raw earth
has spread again, especially after catastrophic events which required a better knowledge of traditional architecture to better conserve both from a material and cultural point of view [14]. New construction techniques have been devised such as that of compressed earth blocks (BTC, CEB compressed earth block), where the use of a press allows the creation of blocks of regular size whose mixture allows rapid drying times and good resistance to bad weather. At the same time, the technique allows for the creation of regular walls, reducing the use of mortar and plaster [15].

Contemporary architecture. After the Second World War, Italy and Europe witnessed reconstruction. The trend is almost always to build new buildings, far from tradition, to bring cities towards the new modernity. Today, however, the sensitivity of designers pushes them to seek innovative solutions while respecting traditions and above all respecting the environment.

This attitude, in accordance with what happened in the past, aims to research and make clear the links between architecture and its cultural and social context. There are several projects that today, through the analysis of local construction traditions, manage to maintain these traditions without giving up innovation in both forms and functions. Today, innovation consists of the ability of architects to find a new compositional key that is well suited to the most ancient construction traditions of the place where the new architecture is to be built [16].

Architect Álvaro Siza uses traditional materials and construction techniques for his works. His aptitude for dialogue between new and old is highlighted in several of his works. One of many is the clay pavilion in Puerto Escondido in Oaxaca, Mexico [17]. The architect's task was to design a pavilion with natural materials to encourage the use of clay and promote teaching for its processing. The building typology that inspired him was the Palapa, a typical building with a palm-shaped roof. Siza was able to create a contemporary structure using simple materials such as clay, straw and wood and modern construction techniques (Fig. 13).

Today several buildings are built respecting the tradition of the place. Starting from tradition, contemporary architects have often found ideas to trigger a series of reflections that lead to the creation of new and particular architecture. This is the case of the building built in Passo di Monte Croce in Sesto in Val Pusteria by the architects of Pedevilla Architects in collaboration with Willeit Architektur (Fig. 14). The building, a center serving hikers in the area, is part of a larger project conceived by the administration of the Natural Park which wanted a series of recognizable buildings, positioned in strategic points in the area declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and which were to become service points for the entire area [18]. A final example in which tradition and innovation meet wonderfully is the small village of Torba, located near Bordrum in Turkey (Fig. 15). This is a widespread hotel covering approximately in which the focus of the designers, belonging to Baraka Architects, was to reconcile the new buildings with the environment and all the pre-existing buildings [19].

Fig. 13. Puerto Escondido, Mexico. Clay pavilion (from https://www.theplan.it/architettura/un-padiglione-in-argilla-firmato-alvaro-siza).

Fig. 13. Puerto Escondido, Mexico. Clay pavilion (from https://www.theplan.it/architettura/un-padiglione-in-argilla-firmato-alvaro-siza).

Fig. 14. The building in Passo di Monte Croce in Sesto in Val Pusteria (from https://pedevilla.info/kreuzbergpass).

Fig. 14. The building in Passo di Monte Croce in Sesto in Val Pusteria (from https://pedevilla.info/kreuzbergpass).

Fig. 15. The village of Torba in Turkey (from https://divisare.com/projects/447589-baraka-architects-orhun-ulgen-voyage-torba-hotel?utm_campaign=journal&utm_content=image-project-id-447589&utm_medium=email&utm_source=journal-id-677).

Fig. 15. The village of Torba in Turkey (from https://divisare.com/projects/447589-baraka-architects-orhun-ulgen-voyage-torba-hotel?utm_campaign=journal&utm_content=image-project-id-447589&utm_medium=email&utm_source=journal-id-677).

Conclusions

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Taking inspiration from tradition is certainly not the only way to approach a new architectural project. However, this remains an excellent strategy to respect the built environment and to create something that can best integrate. In the previous paragraphs, it has been explained how the problem of cultural and material pre-existences has been addressed in the past. It was decided to exhibit examples of architecture created starting from the Renaissance, a period of great transformations and experiments. Precisely in this period the dual attitude of designers and clients, with the conservation of archaeological remains or the destruction of parts of them to encourage the construction of new buildings or new road routes, is significant for understanding the reason why respecting the preexisting structures creating something unique and innovative could be considered almost against the grain. In previous times the use of local materials made the new works more suitable for the built environment in which they were inserted. The difficulty of transportation forces builders to use local materials, which are more available and economical. In this way, "different" materials, foreign to the local culture but also to the environment, were not introduced into the territory.

Temples and theaters of the classical period, bridges and churches of the medieval period appear today more sustainable for the environment than the reinforced concrete and brick buildings built after the Second World War and following the construction standards for seismic zones. The latter, in fact, in the recent past have imposed the use of construction systems deemed more suitable than the local construction culture. Careful studies, however, have shown that traditional walls are not always unsuitable for resisting seismic events. Knowing the traditional wall structures has allowed and still allows today to carry out a more effective conservative intervention, therefore also including those innovations that can better safeguard the building and the safety of those who live there. Knowledge of tradition is therefore fundamental to laying the foundations for innovation. A starting point for these studies was the attention that, at the beginning of the 90s of the twentieth century, was paid to the historic center of the city of Syracuse and the island of Ortigia [20]. Knowledge of ancient wall structures and their static functioning has made it possible to re-evaluate ancient buildings, to insert the most suitable technological innovations and to preserve them from future seismic events.

Today, an intervention that respects the tradition of the place is to be considered a sustainable intervention for the environment. There is more and more talk about environmental sustainability and interventions that respect the environment in all its essence. Thanks to unsuitable choices of the recent past, in which the intervention on the landscape was not seen as respectful of the common good and of public interest which also consists of respecting what does not belong to us, today's architectural interventions aim to create works that can recognize the Cultural and Environmental Values of the territory.
"We must know how to move from the aesthetic landscape (to look at) to the ethical landscape (to live)". This statement by Salvatore Settis encompasses the entire concept of sustainability [21]. All the elements must not be considered individually but must be considered as a whole. The link between people, understood as an organized community, and the environment in which they live must always be taken into consideration when thinking about a new project. Real knowledge of the territory and the cultural heritage of the area are the prerequisites for making an intervention sustainable, be it a restoration or a new construction. Especially in the field of restoration, various measures are put in place to carry out an intervention that can bring together innovation, eco-sustainability and local construction tradition [22].

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The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.81.pdf

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Engineering Innovations, ISSN: 2813-1002, Vol. 8, pp 99-108

doi: 10.4028/p-KAfT4H

© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland.

Submitted:
2023-10-02

Revised:
2023-10-04

Accepted:
2023-10-06

Online:
2024-01-03

A Different Empathy Towards the Use of DIY Biocomposites in Design

The original version of this paper is available on https://www.scientific.net/EI.8.99.pdf

Carlo Santulli

Università di Camerino, School of Science and Technology, via Gentile III da Varano, 62032

Camerino, Italy

carlo.santulli@unicam.it

Keywords: DIY materials; waste upcycling; self-production; senses interaction

Abstract

The interaction of oil-based plastics with the user is limited to the sight and possibly touch, being in any case predictable and not very satisfying. Since bioplastics have been prevalently designed to fit the needs for plastic substitution, the natural elements present in it have intentionally been concealed, so that it is difficult for the user to recover the sense of what using a natural material is like, even worst of what is dealing with an upcycled waste in a material fit-for-use in design and not intended for single use. In this work, the preparation of DIY materials including different kinds of food or non-food waste according to a self-developed and tailored recipe may constitute a possibility. The surface aspect and the expressive properties of a set of twelve selected DIY materials developed in Università di Camerino according to an opposite characteristics map are reported, to serve as reflection of their likely empathy content and on building a richer and more reputable interaction with materials including waste, in view of an effective upcycling process.

Introduction

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We may prove feelings towards objects and materials that constitute them: this in what makes a product or any artifact emotionally durable [1]. These sensations are constituted by a complex mixture of different perceptions of colors, odors, touch, and possibly even noise associated to the material assembly that constitutes the object with which we interact [2]. In the case of food design, but not necessarily, also an emotion associated with taste is perceived: recent studies associated a "five senses" emotional map with some categories of food, such as pasta [3]. A "five senses" interaction with some materials and objects is possible, even if not always desired: some examples are even curious e.g., the possibility to improve the self-diet by obtaining selenium by licking stones, which is one of the paradigmatical category of materials traditionally used in history [4].

This interaction is complex and sometimes very difficult to be elicited and brought to the surface in rational terms, hence, to be quantified. However, the success of recent communication is due to an effective interaction design, starting e.g., with touch screen design, which is ultimately the result of a well-tailored, though sometimes disrupted e.g., by the presence of contaminants, tactile relation the users have with a conductive film in indium tin oxide (ITO) [5]. In this case, and with other objects of common use, empathy, if ever it exists, is difficult to be described, the significance of ITO in a touch screen is strictly confined to its (mostly) satisfactory interaction with the user. However, also in this field, the possibility to have a variable stiffness device leads to haptic design, where physical sensations are really felt through vibrations or touch [6]. Still, it is probably inappropriate to talk about real empathy for haptic interaction, especially as regards the effect of it.

In the case an empathy is really existing between the user and the material, however, an effective interaction does represent the reason why we like/dislike some object, and decide to buy/keep/repair it, or ultimately to preserve it, even if damaged or no longer functioning, or to dispose of it [7]. In other words, there is a kind of convergence between our personal feelings and what we think of the object, in a sense on how it matches our sensations, even coinciding with them. If there is empathy, the effect of materiality, including all aspects of our interaction with the artefacts, can create a sense of well-being, and it is suggested that empathy towards materials, and their combinations, might contribute to sustainability [8].

Post-plastics interaction with materials and objects

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Having said that, from the introduction of oil-based plastics, our interaction with objects has become quite poor and repetitive, with a limited number of factors that might contribute to the abovementioned wellbeing. The use of plastic materials (and this includes also composites/resins, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber composites) is reported as contributing to the "efficiency" of our life and our living in "smarter" cities. However, recently also this paradigm has been discussed, bringing to the limelight "empathic" cities, where wellbeing and livability are going to replace the technocentric idea of city, which involves a large consumption of newly produced synthetic materials [9].

There are also further nuances to this concept of "technocentric city", which is no longer widely accepted. For instance, it has been reported that, as regards single use plastic packaging ("plastic bags"), a sense of guilt might be even experienced if they are not correctly disposed of, while in reality reducing the carbon footprint of plastics goes often well beyond what the common citizen can do (though it is of paramount importance that he/she abides to the disposal regulations) [10].

Clearly the situation has not always be like the above described: at the early times of oil-based plastics there was a clear sensation of lightness that was compared with much heavier and substantial objects conceived and used for the same purpose (e.g., a polypropylene bucket compared with a steel one). This lightness and also the odorless characteristics of plastics was also coupled with hygiene and safety, since it was connected with the limited, if any, contamination of plastics by bacteria and other polluting agents [11]. However, for further generations using plastics, this kind of reference to previous objects and materials with the same function gradually faded away, together with the sensation of plastic superiority as for cleanliness and safety. In contrast, the sensation that plastic objects could offer bright colors, offered by the mass-coloration process with dye substances introduced directly in the masterbatch, remained overtime, but of course allowed a kind of empathic behavior of the material just as far as the sense of sight is concerned [12].

In contrast, the touch sensation of plastics was a quite repetitive and uniform smoothness, to the point that surface sanding was required to improve the grip for some applications of plastics. On the other hand, the relation between touch and pleasantness is well established and, as such, it has demonstrated that plastics is more easily recognized by blind eyes experiment: well known, but most likely offering no nuances to the touch [13].

Proto-plastics as precursors of biocomposites

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The above characteristics of oil-based plastics in terms of poor interaction with the user and limited to touch and sight are not able to be referred back to the previous generations of proto-plastics, which were developed during the XIX century, initially thermosetting, looking for developing some thermoplastics to ease molding [14]. A pivotal example, in terms of its distance from contemporary plastics, was bois durci, a mixture of sawdust and bovine blood, most clearly two sources of waste from different sectors [15]. Another material obtained from refuse, more specifically milk whey and acetic acid (vinegar), then plasticized using formaldehyde, was galalith, which had a longer and more successful history. However, differently from oil-based plastics, it was subjected to sudden failure simply by changes in temperature due to day-night cycles, and the structural limitations represent still a problem in a possible up-to-date reprise of it [16]. Also, galalith was able to absorb and retain also environmental odors, in particular some specific scent from their production matter, such as it is the case for milk whey in galalith [17]. Galalith can be also interpreted as the substitute for the use of natural protein structures, such as tortoise shells and bovine horns, in a plasticized form, which was equally diffused at the time [18].

Another protoplastic, yet based on sugar derivatives (polysaccharides), and inherently moldable, and whose history was even more successful than it is the case for galalith, was cellulose acetate, which was able to resist the historical passage to oil-based plastics, being marketed down to these days, though in slightly modified form. Once again, cellulose acetate can be thought of as originated from some kind of waste: cellulose derives from paper production and acetic acid is a by-product from wine and spirits production. Though apparently neutralized by thorough washing until neural pH is reached, it is well known that cellulose acetate showed over time a typical
polysaccharidic scent, especially when produced at higher thicknesses than the typical film one, hence over than 500 microns [19].

Synthetic materials and the production of waste

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In the materials engineering field, the emotional content embedded in materials is, if any, disregarded. This represents an issue when it comes to creating a durable experience with materials, which is also inherently sustainable, considering the existing connection with the durability and sustainability, since more durable materials and objects would lead to lesser production of waste over time. This problem has been investigated in some of the most polluting materials/sectors, such as textiles/fashion [20] and concrete/constructions [21].

In the case of polymer-based materials, the production of bioplastics/biocomposites was hailed as a step towards circular economy for the possibility of treating end-of-life materials as composting matter. However, to escape from the narrow mindedness of single use, which has significant environmental impact in a throwaway society, especially in that it does not reduce the amount of materials produced and consumed [22]: a possible approach is convert end-of-use plastics into valueadded materials [23].

In itself, the application profile of single-use plastics (SUP), which have been increasingly challenged until a process to put them off-market has effectively started e.g., by 2019/904 European Commission directive, excludes to even thinking of any kind of empathy with the object. However, the process for the disappearance of unnecessary single-use objects is likely to be long and not linear: hence, discussion about the correct communication of this process has been lately vivacious, including some questioning about the role of scientists in the matter [24].

It can be easily suggested that we feel no empathy towards consumables, especially because empathy would imply that we would like to prolong the life of the object: instead, consumables are there to be worn out and disposed of in the prescribed time. This is because, as above clarified in the case of plastics, single-use consumables are designed as such first of all for hygienic purposes: for instance, it would appear senseless and dangerous to re-use non washable diapers. While their environmental impact is well known and widely investigated, these consumables would need to be compostable after use: however, the difficulty to apply this measure is given by the fact that this would expose them to bacterial attack and in general terms make them unsafe for use [25]. The question stays open so far since technical issues in producing compostable and hygienic consumables are still unresolved. However, also possibly to mitigate the aforementioned sense of guilt generated by "black bag" disposal of these consumables, it can be noticed that packaging for discarded diapers is made also in color with some potential for possible empathy so to make it easier and more likeable the process to include the used diaper and therefore correctly dispose of it [26].

Their single-use nature has also influence on how these objects are designed: along the same line, diapers need to be comfortable and adaptable from an ergonomic and biological point of way, but by no means are designed to appear "nice". Rather, the studies are concentrated on the effectiveness and reliability of disposal, so that the pollution linked to this kind of consumables is limited [27]. The characteristic of pleasantness, for non-edible materials, is confined to those objects that are supposed to have some life duration, and on which the fact that they are able to last some time is a factor for appreciation and likeability. In practice, the more you like them the later they become waste: this has a psychological foundation [28]. This is not different from the concept that if food waste production is going to be reduced, a compromise between likeability, hence taste, of food, and attractiveness, hence sight/smell, and possibly even noise (concepts like crunchiness or fluffiness) needs to be reached, especially among children [29].

However, the absence of empathy has been extended over time to those items that are not designed for single use, such as garments in a "fast fashion" philosophy. This concerns the material used, which is prevalently polyester, hence poly(ethyleneterephtalate) (PET), but also an attitude that emphasizes the easy availability and fosters the "instinct" buying, which in turn does not promote the establishment of any empathy relationship between the buyer and the "fast fashion" product. For one, not allowing taking quietly a seat and deciding to buy implies an "unmindful consumption" model [30].

The bioplastic empathy-free paradigm

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According to what exposed above, increasing the life duration of an object implies also reducing the amount of waste that is produced over time from their disposal. So, in principle, it would be of interest that objects that do not need to be designed for single use on hygienic grounds, are realized to produce some empathy with the user [31]. These objects will be therefore going beyond their pure functionality, in a way to be discarded only when it is irreparably damaged and even its repair might come back into the picture, which is seldom the case with plastic objects. This might ultimately break the link between product innovation and absence of empathy [32].

A good occasion has been the recent replacement of conventional oil-based plastics (described sometimes as "petroplastics") with biodegradable ones, which in most cases are also bio-based, hence obtained using natural (lignocellulosic/protein) raw materials. Typical examples are offered by poly(lactic acid) (PLA), based on a glucose molecule, then re-polymerized, or thermoplastic starch (TPS), based on the direct plasticization of a polysaccharide. Such replacement took place also in the field of design, with materials produced e.g., by mold-based methods, such as injection molding or extrusion, or else fabricated by additive manufacturing.

This led to an interesting overturning of the significance of biodegradability in materials. When plastic was introduced, its very limited degradability, mainly confined to photo-degradability under very prolonged exposition to sun or other sources of light, was regarded as a resource for a material that was intended as to be eternal. On the other side, as Hawkins (2017) puts it, "The eternal persistence of plastic seems to fuel only apocalyptic visions of ecological disaster" [33]. Unlike marble, eternal but not moldable, and concrete, which was deemed eternal until its proneness to environmental degradation was discovered, the inalterability yet absence of empathy of plastic stands still as a proof of very long life [34]. Unfortunately, and possibly with only economical but not common sense, after the 70s, single use plastic objects literally flooded the market.

A shift towards longer use bioplastics

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However, the association of biodegradable materials with single use has been fading away with time, by the production also of durable, then intrinsically empathic objects, using the so-called "bioplastics". This can go, and has gone indeed, to exceedingly long distances, such as in the production of a "biodegradable chair" [35]. For example, a chair or more generally a seat is an iconic object, which needs to be empathic to us, since we have a direct interaction and cannot easily avoid touching it, when we suppose it is e.g., dirty, or somehow contaminated. It is also one of the objects in which defining factors leading to users' satisfaction is more complex, leading to specific studies to assess it [36].

Over time, plastics also entered the field of chair production, for specific reasons, which include lightness, hence ability to be displaced when needed, resistance to environmental agents, and easy packing or stacking ability. Yet, making it in biodegradable materials obviously accelerates ageing of the seat and may lead to premature failure, although it might be claimed that using bioplastics in durable products would reduce food waste sent to incineration and worst landfilling [37]. Yet, there is nothing special about empathy when using bioplastic in this specific way, as it looks and feels the same that conventional plastics, being treated to be processed with the same methods: it is only less durable. Also, an excessively fast biodegradability, as it occurs for compostable materials, would possibly oppose to a long duration of an object, while the sudden failure of such an empathic object, such as chairs, would be likely to create frustration if not refuse in the user.

To summarize, biodegradability does possibly improve end-of-life of materials and objects, whenever compostability conditions are met, but in another sense, if this is done, it deeply modifies our empathic relation with the obtained object. This occurs, in particular, whenever its aspect is modified over time and use: the effect of interaction with environment is virtually nullified in the case of conventional plastics, while for biodegradable plastics carries together some phenomena, such as color change, presence and gradual release of odors, surface modification, roughening/smoothing/levelling of the texture/aspect. In a word: ageing. Conventional undamaged
plastics, as in Faust's myth, does not show any particular sign with time passing by. More dramatically, plastic has been defined as "simultaneously eternal and eminently disposable, perfect yet utter rubbish" [38]. At a certain moment, it may simply fail, but this occurs only in case of underdimensioning.

In practice, concentrating on claims on waste reduction, bioplastics have been presented in a way to offer the same characteristics of traditional plastics (including a very reduced empathy with the user), in addition being biodegradable to the point of being compostable, which again is debatable. In other words, they have been designed as being aimed at single-use even when they are not. The consequence of this is that the introduction of bioplastics led to an increase of waste, hence to a more reduced empathic acceptance from the user (it is sufficient to think of the difficulty to reuse bioplastic bags, too brittle and gradually degrading for the purpose). If we really want to go "bio", we need to accept the coming back of interaction by the five senses and of empathy from the material.

To obtain a different empathic process using biocomposites, and also to reconstruct the link between the users and natural materials, which leads to its acceptance, a self-production process is proposed, to obtain objects from materials that can be defined as DIY materials: in that way, the empathic map can be really different from the very poor interaction experiences with oil-based plastics.

DIY materials (biocomposites) and the search for empathy

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The considerations in the above sections pose an essential question of what biocomposites are supposed to be: in general, it is suggested to be defined by the presence in it of some amount of biobased material. Bio-based material in composites might be in the form of a resin, or in the form of a filler, which can take different geometries, from very elongated to quasi-spherical. The name of "biocomposite" is in effect attributed to a material in which any of these components is bio-based, which means originating from nature, although the same term bio-based does refer also to polymer resins, in which only the raw material is bio-based, yet the obtained material is not biodegradable.

Materials originated from nature can be lignocellulosic, such as it the case with plant fibers (from bast, leaf, fruit, seed, bark, roots of a vegetable structure) [39] or more definitely polysaccharidic, such as it is the case with algae or mucilage [40], but also with crustaceans' shells [41]; proteinic, such as it is the case with animal fibers, such as silk, wool, feathers, horns, etc., or mineral, such as it is the case with calcium carbonate structures obtained from shells, or calcium phosphate structures, obtained from fish bones [42], etc.

As far as empathy is concerned, this general classification of biocomposites may be only partially helpful for a number of reasons. In particular, the bio-fraction in the material can be too limited, which, apart from raising doubts about the possible "green-washing" philosophy followed in that specific case, might result in a material very close to plastics or resins or traditional composites (e.g., fiberglass) and therefore not only their "empathy profile", but also their carbon footprint might come to the point to not being discernible from a "synthetic material". In other cases, may be the biofraction might not be that low, but the biocomposite could have been designed as to resemble the material it is supposed to substitute, for example the filler is inserted in an absolutely impermeable and ambient-resistant resin, such as epoxy or acrylic. It is not much different from putting a nail work over the real nail. The sensation offered and the possible empathy will be attributed to the superposed material not to the underposed biological one.

Therefore, if the case above is produced, there is nothing specific in being a biocomposite in terms of empathy. It is also fair to say that the commonest cases about biocomposites deal with this kind of substitution process, trying to reproduce the synthetic material with the bio-based one and pretending it has the same properties and the same interactions with the users. This is an uncomfortable question about material substitution (e.g., Styrofoam with mycelium-based materials [43], or fiberglass with plant fiber composites using the same resin, possibly epoxy) is therefore that they ultimately are presented as the same material as far as sensations are involved. In the case of mycelium-grown foams, the texture may vary, and the color be not uniformly white nonetheless, so that the nuances of brown and yellow would depend on the very biomass used for feeding the fungi and also the touch
might be rougher. Therefore, we can suppose that it might have sense to express likeability and recognizability of one piece with respect to the other, which in Styrofoam we would have much difficulty to do.

The principal reason to deviate from this trend would be to bring back the empathic relation with natural materials, and therefore the five senses interaction with it: this has been prevalently lost as an effect of the success of oil-based plastics. However, if we want to bring back local natural materials, it is essential that this global interaction is restored. This is also in the interest of resuming some production systems: a typical example might be the hemp system, which including both food and non-food products, gives to the user a clear sensation of what can be a richer sense interaction [44].

Experiences in the production of DIY materials

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To make the interaction with biocomposites an empathic experience, the self-production can represent an option: this will enable detaching from the feeling of being faced with a different type of plastics, just more bio-based. For this, we need a new aesthetic removed from the perfection and pretended eternity of plastics, which has been just transferred into bio-based plastic, as they were able to behave in the same way, therefore inappropriately. This new aesthetics classifies DIY materials, which are prevalently based on the revalorization and the refocusing of waste, as the true strategy for sustainability, in five "kingdoms": vegetable, animal, lapideum, recuperavit, and mutantis [45]. It is from the esthetical characteristics of all these materials that a possible empathic interaction is generated. Self-production, beyond offering more value to a kind of artisanal working, enables to understand what the specific character of each material and relevant product can be, before passing to production. Of course, once accepted departing from the plastics esthetical and (limited) empathic concept, it is essential that all possibilities are taken to hinder as much as possible the degenerative processes such as fermentation and generically bacterial attack: this is created mainly by exploring and taking knowledge from cooking uses and tradition.

The experience briefly described as regards the production of DIY materials started from different matrices, inspired to the traditional families of protoplastics, hence polysaccharide (starch, or cellulose based), or protein (e.g., milk whey) based. All DIY need to include some waste and to generate objects that are not intended as fully ephemeral. In particular, a set of twelve materials, produced during the experimentation at Università di Camerino and shown in Figure 1, will be described that have demonstrated a particularly long potential for life, which is essential for possible interaction, and their specific elements and possible empathic content will be summarized in Table 1. All the DIY materials presented have in common the fact to contain at least a type of waste, mainly originated from the food sector, but disrespectful their nature (polysaccharidic, ceramic, or ligneous).

Fig. 1. Surface samples of twelve DIY materials

Fig. 1. Surface samples of twelve DIY materials

In particular, the main components included in each of the DIY materials are reported in Table 1: when not indicated otherwise, the basis for the material development is starch (potato/corn) plasticized using glycerol. In some cases, experience of herbs/spices coupled with DIY materials in order to offer scent and stop degradation.

Table 1. Main waste components characterizing each DIY material

DIY material | Principal waste component | Other characteristics
Grangala (GG) | Exhaust black tea | Expired milk-vinegar matrix
Bioclams (BC) | Clams and other seashells | Gelatin matrix
Biopeanut (BP) | Peanut shells | Lemon juice
Meloplas (MP) | Pomegranate (peel and seeds) | Use of thyme and cinnamon
Antiqua (AQ) | Exhaust ground coffee | Mix with silica (sand)
Bioberry (BB) | Brown berries waste (damaged/rotten) | Infused tea waste
Schuck-plast (SP) | Fruit peel | Added vinegar
L.P.H. (LP) | Ground eggshells | Added blended tomato peels
Biowalnut (BW) | Walnut shells | Expired milk-vinegar matrix
Thumbering (TR) | Exhaust ground coffee + sawdust | Use of cinnamon
C.H-P. (CH) | Grape waste | Use of balsamic vinegar
Pomaceplas (PP) | Oil pomace | Use of curcumin and vinegar

Suggestions for empathy to be developed are offered in the map reported in Figure 2. The fact that the materials have an empathic content would also allowing avoiding a single-use strategy. Some duration of life would be needed to be ensured, for this reason the experiments with this DIY materials were intended to be dedicated to some categories of objects, such as personal gadgets, toys or lamps, to which affection is particularly ensured.

Fig. 2. Characteristics of DIY materials reported on an opposite scale

Fig. 2. Characteristics of DIY materials reported on an opposite scale

From the above considerations, it can be easily revealed that the creation of DIY materials does offer a different and much richer interaction with the user that any plastic material may suggest. These DIY materials were in the past also defined, though possibly in a not completely appropriate way, as "self-produced bioplastics". This is incongruous, since real plastic behavior does seldom occur in reality.

In a strictly technical sense, these bioplastics can be considered as biocomposites, yet they are fabricated, according to a gradually fine-tuned recipe, to offer a specific sensation and experience, which is schematically reported in Figure 2, according from the self-evaluation by the developers. It can also be noted that the complete divulgation of recipes together with the material produced would allow the reproduction of the material in a tailored way so to enable an as smooth as possible correlation of the properties with what is desired in terms of expressivity and empathy.

Conclusions

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DIY materials production including different types of waste with recipes developed and always modifiable according to an experimental method approach for expressive properties fitting, are able to offer a richer interaction that it is the case for industrial bioplastics. Moreover, they may rebuild the empathy bond with the user, breaking the vicious circle of rapid "use-and-throw" process and redefine the acceptability of natural materials including some forms of refuse and overtly maintaining their characteristics. These would include among others non repeatable textures, colors, surface roughness and specific/mixed odors, and of course would offer variable characteristics over time, as typical for really naturally occurring materials.

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Keywords Index

3

3D Printing Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

A

Air Quality Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

Albanian Lighting Codes Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

Ancient Architecture Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

Architectural Technology Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

Artificial Surfaces Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

B

Basalt Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

C

Construction Tradition Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

D

Diy Materials; Waste Upcycling; Self-production; Senses Interaction A Different Empathy Towards the Use of DIY Biocomposites in Design

E

Emotional Design Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

Empathy Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

Energy Saving LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

Environment LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment; Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

Environmental Lighting Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

G

Global Warming Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

H

Hosplighting Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

Housing Crisis Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

I

Illuminance Level Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

Innovation In The Past Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

L

Land Cover Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

Lighting Design Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

N

Natural Materials Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

Neurosciences Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

P

Public Lighting LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

R

Raw Earth Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

Relational Design Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

S

Smart City LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

Sustainability Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector; Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

Systemic-relational Psychology Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

T

Technology LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

Tradition Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

U

Urban Areas Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

Authors Index

A

Aimar, F. Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions

Aliaj, B. Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania

C

Caro, S. LED Technology and Smart City, their Role and Impact on Man and the Environment

L

Langella, C. Systemic-Relational Design to Enhance Empathy Processes

N

Niglio, M. Innovation and Tradition Respect for Tradition in the Architecture of the Past

S

Salvo, S. Insights into New Trends and Contemporary Challenges in 3D Printing in Architectural Sector

Santulli, C. A Different Empathy Towards the Use of DIY Biocomposites in Design

X

Xhexhi, K. Urban Heat Islands in Tirana, Albania. Analysis and Potential Solutions; Lighting in Hospitals. Case Study: Military Hospital of Tirana, Albania