Papers by Author: Philip J. Withers

Abstract: A novel methodology based on a combination of experimental and analytical methods is used for monitoring the stress intensity factor in fatigue cracks subjected to constant amplitude loads. Full-field displacement information is fitted, following a multi-point over-deterministic approach, to an analytical model. This is developed from Muskhelishvili’s complex formulation. The methodology allowed accurate monitoring of the stress intensity factor during three fatigue cycles when small-scale yielding conditions were achieved. Moreover for larger loads where important plastic deformation occurs around the crack tip, Dugdale’s correction accounted for the differences between theoretical and calculated stress intensity factors. Accordingly the tool provides an indirect approach for measuring crack tip plasticity. Due to the fact that image correlation is relatively simple to use and is a non-contacting technique, the approach pioneered in this work seems ideal for monitoring fatigue cracks in industrial applications.

Abstract: The level of residual stresses generated in fusion welds has been a major area of interest for many years. For steels, a major influence on the final state of stress is through martensitic transformation. This is because the martensitic transformation is accompanied by significant shear and volume strains. One way to mitigate the development of residual stress is by controlling the onset of the transformation such that the associated strain is able to compensate for thermal contraction all the way down to ambient temperatures. In the past it has only been possible to follow the evolution of the phase transformation during cooling of the weld metal using indirect methods such as dilatometry and differential scanning calorimetry. This paper describes the first work in which the phases present are characterized directly during the cooling of reheated weld metal at conditions typical of those encountered during welding by installing a thermomechanical simulator on a synchrotron diffraction beam line at ESRF.

Abstract: Although Friction Stir Welding (FSW) avoids many of the problems encountered when fusion welding high strength Al-alloys, it can still result in substantial residual stresses that have a detrimental impact on service life. An FE model has been developed to investigate the effectives of the mechanical tensioning technique for controlling residual stresses in FSWs. The model purely considered the heat input and the mechanical effects of the tool were ignored. Variables, such as tensioning level, heat input, and plate geometry, have been studied. Good general agreement was found between modelling results and residual stress measurements, justifying the assumption that the stress development is dominated by the thermal field. The results showed a progressive decrease in the residual stresses for increasing tensioning levels and, although affected by the heat input, a relatively low sensitivity to the welding variables. At tensioning levels greater than ~ 50% of the room temperature yield stress, tensile were replaced by compressive residual stresses within the weld.

Abstract: This paper describes the measurement of longitudinal residual stresses within specially designed 200x180x25mm groove weld specimens. The purpose of these measurements was to compare the residual stress field arising from single and multi-pass weld beads laid down within the constraint of a groove in order to validate finite element simulations of the welding process. Measurements were made over the cross section at the mid-bead length, utilising the relatively new Contour method and neutron diffraction. Results from these measurements indicate a larger peak tensile longitudinal residual stresses within the weld region of the multi-pass weld sample. Good agreement is found between both techniques.

Abstract: In this study we present a direct comparison between residual strain measurements carried out on the same inertia friction weld using ENGIN-X at ISIS, UK and the new strain scanner SALSA at ILL, France. ENGIN-X is a time of flight (TOF) instrument, which receives neutrons from a neutron spallation source, while the SALSA Strain-Imager, a high resolution diffractometer, is based at a research reactor source with a continuous neutron flux and is operated with a constant wavelength. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate a confidence in crosscomparing future strain measurements to be performed at ENGIN-X and SALSA. Measurements were carried out on medium size inertia friction welded nickel superalloy test-piece, which show no significant crystallographic texture across the weld line. The results demonstrate that, even though residual stresses determined on SALSA only rely on a single peak analysis (in this case the (111) reflection), the results show excellent agreement with the measurements carried out on ENGIN-X, where strain is determined from multi-peak Rietveld analysis.

Abstract: The current study compares the residual strain around foreign object damage (FOD), measured using synchrotron diffraction, to the strain predicted by a plastic model with power-law dependence. It is shown that the measured strains are significantly lower than those predicted by the model. This may be explained in part, by the inability of the model to account for damage mechanisms such as micro-cracking and shear band formation.

Abstract: SALSA (Strain Analyser for Large Scale engineering Applications) is a novel instrument for strain imaging at the high flux neutron reactor of the Institut Max von Laue – Paul Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, France. It is the first of its kind that uses a precise robotic sample stage for sample manipulation. In addition to standard xyz-translation it provides tilts up to ±30° about any horizontal axis. Its load capacity is more than 500 kg and samples up to 1.5 m in length can be scanned with high accuracy. Thanks to a double focusing monochromator and supermirror guide count times are very short. A broad wavelength range, variable beam optics, including radial focusing collimators for high lateral resolution, make it a very flexible instrument for a large variety of strain imaging applications in small and large specimens. The instrument has been commissioned in 2005 and is open for access by a peer review proposal system and as well by industry. The paper describes the important aspects of the instrument and results from the first experiments.

Abstract: The residual stresses around clearance-fit mechanical fasteners have been found to be similar to those around cold expanded holes where compressive hoop stresses close to the fastener hole are balanced by far-field tensile stresses. This compressive zone has been shown to prolong fatigue lifetimes around fastener holes. Constant amplitude fatigue loading was applied to single plate rivet specimens for varying numbers of cycles to investigate the redistribution of these stresses after fatiguing. Synchrotron diffraction was used to map the evolution of the residual stresses around the rivets. Little change in the hoop stress local to the rivets occurred until visible fatigue cracks were observed suggesting that relaxation of these stresses is due to the cracks rather than their cause.

Abstract: Residual stress induced by laser single pulse irradiation was analyzed using a dynamic finite element code, ABAQUS/Explicit. The effects of the magnitude and length of a surface pressure pulse having a circular top-hat shape on the final residual stress in Ti-6Al-4V were investigated. A high peak pressure and/or a long pulse duration was effective in generating large compressive residual stress deep beneath the surface. However, large tensile residual stress features occurred near the centre and edge of the laser spot on the surface for high pressure and/or long pulse durations due to a radial focusing effect. Use of shorter pulse durations avoided this. The peak pressure (3GPa) required to induce a surface compressive residual stress across the whole area of the spot was slightly higher than the threshold pressure needed to plastically deform the surface.