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The measured penetration profiles reveal grain boundary-induced part along with the volume diffusion one.
The grain size of polycrystalline alloys was measured to vary from 30 (Cu-richest alloy) to about 300 µm.
We performed numerical fitting of the profiles accounting for both, volume and grain boundary diffusion.
Accounting for the exact solution of the grain boundary diffusion problem, Eq. (1), the grain boundary diffusion contribution can correctly be subtracted from the measured experimental profiles.
Model The Danielewski-Holy model of interdiffusion for multi-component systems allows quantitative description of the complex diffusion mass-transport process for the unlimited number of elements and when the tracer diffusion coefficients are concentration dependent.

Moreover, the presence of the circles numbered 1, 2 and 3 show that different grains with some orientations or lattice parameter diffract.
The circle 3 exhibit few well defined grain of the cross section.
These grains are composed of many small steps spaced out with 1 nm gap.
In addition, a high resolution image of a grain is shown on the right side.
Theses grains are more structured and better defined than grains of sample sputtered at 873 K.

Low temperature DC magnetization studies evidence the presence of weak antiferromagnetic coupling while the Kelly Henkel plots for these samples show that the dominant exchange interactions between the grains are ferromagnetic.
Among the various non-magnetic elements used for under layering, it is observed that the addition of Ti has an important effect on the structure and magnetic properties in thin films like reduction of grain size, reduction of exchange interaction between grains and increasing perpendicular coercivity [7-8].
In the sample with 24TLs, the number of Fe-Ti interfaces containing the amorphous FeTi phase is double that in the case of the 12 TLs sample and so the total amount of this phase is also much more in the 24 TLs sample.
The δM curves for both MLs are displayed in figure (8) indicate that both MLs behave as interacting assembly of particles with strong ferromagnetic interactions between the magnetic grains.
Shunzhen et al report that diffusion of Ti atoms into the magnetic grain boundaries decreases the exchange interaction between magnetic grains [17].

This process is influenced by the release of various ions from cement hydration and the interaction between polymer and cement grain in the water.
On the other hand, cement adsorbs a number of polymer particles and surfactants due to the huge surface area of cement grains.
The saturated adsorption of polymer particles by cement grains is about 4.3% (based on the weight of cement) according to the research work in [9].
OP-30 will also compensate the adsorption of surfactant (in the water) by cement grains.
Firstly, the molecules of OP-30 will adsorb the cement grains, delaying cement hydration.

SEM observation found that crystallization phases in water cooling slag had a small grain and uniform distribution, this kind of structure was advantageous to the latter hydration reaction and strength development of blast furnace slag.
From the Figure 2-4, it was obvious that different cooling ways of slags had different size of grain and different distribution.
Liquid nitrogen cooled slag can’t be well dispersed, at the same time, the gasification of liquid nitrogen was very fast when contacting with high temperature slag, so the surface slag in contact with the liquid nitrogen cooled fast to form a tiny grain, while the cooling speed of the interior slag which can’t contact with liquid nitrogen directly was relatively slow, thus the grain size was larger and uniformity.
For air cooled slag, the absorption peak position around 980 cm-1 moved slightly to higher wave number direction compared with water cooled slag and liquid nitrogen cooled slag.
In addition, according to the 28 days compressive strength of three slags, crystal grain size and distribution in blast furnace slag had a certain influence on its hydraulic activity.A small grain and uniform distribution in slag was advantageous to the latter hydration reaction and strength development of blast furnace slag.

Aging treatment causes the β phase to precipitate at the grain boundaries or the edge of the residual second phases in lamellar and blocky morphology.
The polygonal Mg2Si particles were located near the HGM and evenly distributed at the grain boundaries or in the interior of the α-Mg matrix.
After a short time of aging treatment, the fine lamellar β phase was revealed near the grain boundaries or the edge of the residual phases.
The residual β phase and coarse eutectic τ-Al2CuMg phase translated into blocky morphology and were distributed along the grain boundaries.
Acknowledgment This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province of China (Grant numbers ZR2019MEM020).

We justified the predicted number of properties, in particular: porosity, particle shape, grain size, microstructure of the sample surface, pre-etching process, post-etching process, as well as the main advantages of the iterative process. 1 Introduction Modern scientific and technological progress has always been, is, and will always be inextricably linked with the emergence of new ways of qualitative research of materials and products [1, 2].
In this case, a large number of processes related to the formation of powder materials are highlighted, as well as their main regularities are established.
It should be noted that these materials can have a complex of a number of unique properties, as well as significantly improve the economic performance of any type of production.
Based on the results obtained, to study a number of properties of steel grade 40 HN, as well as to model 2D and 3D parts – shaft grade PRT-7.
It should also be noted that the steel of the 40 XH grade studied by us has a number of properties (porosity, particle shape, grain size, microstructure of the surface of samples, the procedure of the process before and after etching, which allows you to study the structure from the inside, as well as the main advantages of the iterative process as a whole) and can also be used for another class of parts.

A certain number of cylindrical grinding medium with the size 10mm×14mm are added into ball mill.
Grain refining can significantly increase the yield strength, plasticity and toughness of the material.
The serial number of the samples are marked for a and b.
Effect on ball milling is best while the number of cylindrical grinding medium is 30%
[2] When the quantity of cylindrical grinding medium is more than 30%, effect on ball milling is reduced with increase of the number.

Voids often nucleate at weak points in the material, for instance, inclusions or grain boundary.
But the processes of void nucleation and growth involve the movement and aggregation of dislocations, grain boundary deformation and so on.
Defect structures are distinguished by calculating their coordination numbers and Common Neighbor Analysis (CAN) values.
But for metal Pd, the mean stress is lower and the von Mises stress is higher, the numbers of voids may be not more.
The higher the applied strain rate, the more the number of nucleated voids.

The mechanical properties and the approximate grain size of the materials used are given in Table 1 Table 1 Mechanical properties and the approximate grain size of the materials.
The values of the applied load and the resulting number of the cycles to failure are presented in Table 2.
The wear device assembled in the PLINT-TE67 pin-on-plate wear-testing machine Table 2 Loading conditions and number of cycles to failure No.
Fig. 4 presents the effect of relative displacement on fretting fatigue life and Fig. 5 presents the relation between the normalized maximum stresses used in fretting fatigue test and the number of cycles to failure.
The harder CK45 alloy developed a smaller wear scar which resulted in lower values of the stress concentration factor and, consequently, higher fretting fatigue life; - Material properties promoting an increase in wear resistance (like grain size, hardness) should enhance fretting fatigue life.