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The results show that the grain size of the brush coatings all is in nanometer scale.
The larger cauliflower possesses more grains and a longer growth time, and vice versa.
The grain size of the composite coatings.
The grain size of the coatings is calculated by the Scherrer equation.
Therefore, a large number of metal ions are redistributed according to the repulsive force on the surface [7].

Typical fluorescence spectrum of alumina phase. 5975 6000 6025 6050 6075 6100 6125 6150 6175 Wave number　(cm -1) Intensity (a.u.)Results and discussion Figure 3 shows the SEM images of ZTA with various zirconia contents.
The black and white grains correspond to alumina and zirconia grains, respectively.
The Raman study showed that peak position of Cr 3+ fluorescence spectrum shifted toward lower wave number with increasing zirconia content, namely with increasing monoclinic fraction.
The peak shift toward lower wave number means increase in tensile residual stress stored in alumina matrix (Fig 6).
Black and white grains indicate alumina and zirconia grains, respectively.

The new grain nucleation firstly appeared at the protruding parts of grain boundaries.
Rolled at 850˚C, there was an increase in the number of grain boundaries while the deformation bands turned to be shorter and thinner.
In other words, with the rolling temperature decreasing, number of grain boundaries would increase and more uneven deformation bands would be got.
As showed in Fig.9, a large number of deformation bands could be investigated in cold rolled sheets.
(3) The number of precipitates decreased with the increase of finish rolling temperature.

The average number of pixels that the bead travels between frame is approximately 4 along the x-axis axis and 6 along the y-axis.
A set of twenty experiments, for each grain, was recorded in this study.
A typical trajectory of the non-elastic grain in the board is given in the fig. 2.
Given the large number of collisions occurring at every moment, this second force varies in a very random and violent.
Note that when the grain grows his movement is slower in the arrangement of nails.

The value of ky increases with increasing Taylor factor [5] which generally depends on the number of slip systems.
Because the number of slip systems of hexagonal closed packed (hcp) metals are much fewer than those of face centered cubic (fcc) and body centered cubic (bcc) metals, larger Taylor factor could be obtained for hcp metals than for fcc and bcc metals.
Grain structure is illustrated in Fig.2b and average grain size is about 500 μm.
It is noted that twins appear in grains.
Dynamic recrystallization takes place and the microstructure is composed of large size grains and fine recrystallized grains.

Macroscopic behavior of this system is determined by the properties of individual grains, by the mechanical and physical processes run in grains and interaction of grains.
The random shape of grains and orientations of grains crystallographic axes dictates to use statistical methods.
The polycrystalline aggregate is domain of volume Ω consisted of subdomain (crystallites) with volume , , N - full number of crystallites in the body.
For practical application macroscopic quantity of grains N (millions) can be replaced by finite but big number M (tens of thousands) that is statistically representational to N and yet M<For cubical grains the numerical results differ from these ones for spherical grains by few percents.

It was found that increased deformation leads to a strong increase of quantity of high angle (>15°) grain boundaries and strong grain refinement (down to 200-300nm).
A number of publications in the literature concerns the analysis of microstructure development and texture as well as their effect on mechanical properties of metals and alloys [2-6].
Further deformation resulted in the appearance of strongly refined grains accompanied by a significant contribution of equiaxial sub-grains, whose thickness was 200-300 nm, Fig. 1c.
The analysis of material after 9 passes showed that the increase of cycle number did not effect in further refinement of the structure.
For low deformation degrees, the grains of misorientation angle above 15o are mostly formed from the primary grains.

The grains grow up when the grains are heated, which can lead the mean grains size become larger.
Because the existence of the instauration bonds and distortion bonds at the site of the grains boundary, the energy of the GB is higher than the energy inside the grains.
So the reduction of the number of the GB can lead to the reduction of the energy of the interconnect system.
Annealing can enlarge the grains size reduce the number of GB and reduce the system energy.
As the result of the reduction of the number of GB, which is an important EM diffusion path, the EM diffusion is restrained.

After the heat treatments, both AC and FC samples were processed by HPT at room temperature with a pressure of 6.0 GPa and a rotational speed of 1 rpm to total numbers of turns, N, of 1 and 10.
AC and FC samples have similar grain sizes in the range of 40 - 50 nm.
This grain size is smaller than the grain size of 110 nm obtained after 10 turns of HPT processing with an initial microstructure of equiaxed a phase + 52% lamellar [11-12].
Significant grain refinement, with grain sizes of 40 -50 nm, was obtained after HPT processing to 10 turns in both the air cooling and furnace cooling samples.
Langdon, Twenty-five years of ultrafine-grained materials: Achieving exceptional properties through grain refinement, Acta Mater. 61 (2013) 7035-7059

Using sets of SEM images for each processing condition, an image measurement software was utilized to count more than 300 grains in each sample and then calculate the average grain size and the grain size distribution.
The grain size distributions show that the area fractions of the larger grains with sizes >5 μm is reduced to zero after 1 pass of ECAP and further grain refinement occurs between 1 and 8 passes.
With an increase in the number of ECAP passes, there is a significant decrease in flow stress and increase in ductility as shown in Fig. 2 (b), (c), and (d).
Meanwhile, the dimple numbers and dimensions are decreased with increasing numbers of ECAP passes.
Micro-tensile testing at a high temperature shows that the ductility of the AZ31 alloy can be improved significantly with increasing numbers of ECAP passes. 3.