Estimating Mercury Flows through Thermometers and Sphygmomanometers in Healthcare Facilities in Thailand on the Basis of a Material Flow Analysis

Abstract:

This paper investigated mercury (Hg) flows and stock through mercury thermometers and sphygmomanometers in Thailand for 2010 using Material Flow Analysis (MFA) based on mass balance principles. All calculations in this study are based on data from hospital surveys and reliable secondary data sources. This study indicates that all thermometers and sphygmomanometers used in Thailand were only imported. Mercury contained in thermometers and sphygmomanometers was about 1,675 kg and 5,375 kg respectively. During the use phase, thermometers can release roughly 70% of Hg into the environment (air and water) while no emissions were emitted from sphygmomanometers. This study also shows that about 20-30% of mercury thermometer and sphygmomanometer waste were disposed of in landfills and incinerators. Hg can be released into air, land, and water at approximately 53%, 35%, and 12% respectively. According to our scenario analysis, it shows that phasing out Hg medical-based devices combined with preventing the breakage and spillage of Hg-thermometers can give higher potential reduction of Hg in Thailand.

• Periodical: Advanced Materials Research (Volumes 931-932)
• Pages: 629-634
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.931-932.629
• Online since: May 2014
• Authors: Manaporn Wongsoonthornchai, Suphaphat Kwonpongsagoon*
• Keywords: Material Flow Analysis, Mercury, Sphygmomanometer, Thermometer

References

[1] US. EPA, Mercury study report to congress, Volume 1: executive summary, Washington, D.C., (1997).

[2] UNEP Chemicals, Global mercury assessment, Geneva, (2002).

[3] Information on http: /www. usgs. gov.

[4] UNEP, Module 4 Mercury Use in Healthcare Settings and Dentistry, Geneva, (2008).

[5] WHO, Replacement of mercury thermometer and sphygmomanometer in health care: technical guidance, Geneva, (2011).

[6] WHO, and HCWH, WGO-HCWH global initiative to substitute mercury-based medical devices in health care: a two year report, (2010).

[7] US. EPA., Eliminating mercury in hospital, Washington, D.C., (2002).

[8] T. Punpeng, Phase-out of Mercury Containing Fever Thermometer and Sphygmomanometer: Thailand, HCWH-WHO-UNDP/GEF Asia regional conference on mercury-free healthcare conference presentation, March 15, (2011).

[9] F.V. Ferrer, Switch to mercury free health care, Symposium of knowledge exchange for public health campaign to reduce global warming with sanitation, sustainable and environmental friendly, 9-11 November 2013 (in Thai).

[10] C. Lassen, and E. Hansen, Paradigm for substance flow analyses; Guide for SFAs carried out for the Danish EPA, Denmark, (2000).

[11] P.H. Brunner, and H. Rechberger, Practical handbook of material flow analysis. lewis, Florida, (2004).

[12] H.P. Bader and R. Scheidegger, MMFA framework, Eawag, Dübendorf, (2013).

[13] S. Kwongpongsagoon, D. Waite, S. Moore, and P. Brunner, A substance flow analysis in the southern hemisphere: cadmium in the Australian economy, Clean Tech Environ Policy. 9(2007) 175-187.

DOI: 10.1007/s10098-006-0078-z

[14] S. Kwongpongsagoon, H.P. Badder, and R. Scheidegger, Modelling cadmium flows in Australia on the basis of a substance flow analysis, Clean Tech Environ Policy. 9(2007) 313-323.

DOI: 10.1007/s10098-007-0095-6

[15] G. Xueyi, Z. Juya, S. Yu, and T. Qinghua, Substance flow analysis of zinc in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 54(2009) 171-177.

[16] W. Chen, S. Lei and Q. Yi, Substance flow analysis of aluminium in mainland China for 2001, 2004 and 2007: Exploring its initial sources, eventual sinks and the pathways linking them. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 54(2010) 557-570.

DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2009.10.013

[17] M. Schaffner, H.P. Badder, and R. Scheidegger, Modeling the contribution of point sources and non-point sources to Thachin River water pollution, Science of The Total Environment. 407(2009) 4902-4915.

DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.05.007

[18] W. Kupkanchanakul, and S. Kwonpongsagoon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus flow analysis from pig farming in Bang Pakong Basin, Eastern Thailand, EnvironmentAsia. 4(2011) 27-32.

[19] D.B. Huang, H.P. Badder, R. Scheidegger, R. Schertenleib, and W. Gujer, Confronting limitations: New solutions required for urban water management in Kunming City, Journal of Environmental Management. 84(2007) 49-61.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.05.004

[20] N. Chevre, S. Coutu, J. Margot, H.K. Wynn, H.P. Badder, R. Scheidegger, and L. Rossi, Substance flow analysis as a tool for mitigating the impact of pharmaceuticals on the aquatic system, Water research. 47(2013) 2995-3005.

DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.03.004

[21] F. Pfister, H-P. Bader, R. Scheidegger, and P. Baccini, Dynamic modelling of resource management for farming systems, Agricultural System. 86(2005) 1-28.

DOI: 10.1016/j.agsy.2004.08.001

[22] C. Sendra, X. Gabarrell, and T. Vicent, Material flow analysis adapted to an industrial area, Journal of Cleaner Production. 15(2007) 1706-1715.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.08.019

[23] UNEP, Toolkit for identification and quantification of mercury releases, Geneva, (2011).

[24] C. Hao, and Y. Shen, Study on production and mercury consumption of clinical mercury thermometers in China, Research of Environmental Sciences. 19(2006) 18-21.

[25] Department of Health, The situation of mercury waste management in the hospitals belong to the Office of Permanent Secretary, unpublished, 2013 (in Thai).

[26] Pangkone hospital, Innovative of mercury thermometer, Sakon Nakhon, 2010 (in Thai).

[27] K. Muangthong, C. Srising, M. Muengprafang, and Y. Saedan, Innovative of safety mercury thermometer, Ngew-Ngam Tambon health promotion center, Phitsanulok, 2013 (in Thai).