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These include the impact of deformation conditions (mainly the temperature, size and speed of the deformation), as well as the interrelations between mechanical properties and structure of the material in terms of the size of the grain, density of dislocations, etc.
Crystallization structure, size of the grain, chemical composition, content and impurities are the main parameters determining the behavior of deformation.
The applied combined method includes advantages of both materially and geometrically non-linear final element methods and mutual interaction of a large number of bodies (discrete elements).
From a large number of outputs, only those have been selected for this paper, which indicate the size and course of the plastic deformation, specifically after the 12 mm tool feed.

The preparation of additives used in brick production consists in crushing them to a given grain size composition or in sifting.
At the same time, for samples of the same composition of the charge, but with different fineness of slag grinding, an increase in dangerous pores is observed by 26-32%, the number of transition pores decreases by 18-28%, and the compressive strength increases by 5-15%.
Analysis of the microstructure of the samples indicates the presence of grains of various sizes, between which pores of various shapes are formed, mostly closed, with a size in the range from 10.0 to 0.1 μm.
Figure 3 shows that with an increase in the dispersion of the slag in the charge to 0.0315, the number of large pores (more than 10 μm) decreases.
Their number is 0.3%.

Fig. 2 (b) Application to biomedical engineering: Hip-joint endoprostheses Nowadays, the annual number of prosthesis replacements of hip joints has greatly increased, whilst, at the same time the amount of operations grows constantly, mainly due to the process of natural aging of the society and increase in the number of technological and transportation-related accidents.
Shock loading leads to intense fracturing of the initial grains and stacking, leading to void decrease and to consolidation
Micrographs showing: the particle shapes after compaction, the metal jet formation and plastic deformation of grains due to impact, a jet head of molten material entrapped in a cavity formed due to impact, a channel of molten material with a column-like “as-cast” grain structure and the microstructural characteristics of the compact at the aluminium punch plate/powder interface are shown in Figs.7(b)-(f), respectively.
The shockwaves originated from explosive detonation and propagated through the porous media, can create high shock pressures and high temperatures that result in fracturing the original grains and in sintering.

Hot rolling and heat treatment Mechanical property tests -10°C lateral impact requirement, flattening is an alternative test Room temperature impact, vertical replacement for landscape Surface quality No internal oxide scale or annealing residue on the inner surface, surface roughness depth <10% wall thickness Surface defect depth <12.5% wall thickness Organizations and precipitations Single-phase austenite structure, the number of precipitated phases is required No special requirements They have strong corrosion resistance to chloride-induced stress corrosion and can withstand corrosive media such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
Alloying Elements in Nickel-Based Alloys and Their Effects The ISO 13680 standard stipulates that a continuous precipitation phase is not allowed at the grain boundary in the microstructure of the nickel-based alloy for oil country tubular goods material and the total content of intermetallic compounds, nitrides and carbides does not exceed 1.0wt%, and the σ phase does not exceed 0.5wt% [6].
D.Kong et al. [10] studied the effect of Nb content on microstructure and mechanical properties, indicating that the grain size of nickel-based alloys decreases with the increase of Nb.
When the alloy composition is unsatisfactory, the heat treatment is improper and large number of harmful different precipitation phases are generated in the austenite crystal or grain boundary (Fig. 2) [12], pipes are prone to stress corrosion and local corrosion in highly acidic corrosive environments.
Since the nickel-based alloy contains many alloying elements, after the hot extrusion process, the second phases distributed along the grain boundary often generate, such as nitride phase, carbide phase and σ, which may affect the resistance of the material.

In addition, in situ synthesized TiB and TiC reduce the grain size of matrix alloy.
In Fig.3(c), the TiB whiskers and TiC particles mainly distribute at the β grain boundaries.
This reveals these reinforcements played a role of obstacles and restricted the grains growth at high temperature.
A large number of cleavage planes appeared in the fracture surfaces of TMC-1 (Fig. 5(b)).
Large numbers of cracked TiB whiskers and TiC particles indicate that in most cases cracks initiated in reinforcements at first, then (a) (b) (c) propagated to matrix alloy and resulted in failure at last.

Because powder-bed process is used for manufacturing, component surfaces have certain amount of partially-connected (fused) precursor powder grains (60-100 mm in diameter), which resulted in a relatively rough surface morphology.
As clearly visible from the images metal surface contains a number of powder grains strongly and rather loosely attached to the bulk metal (Fig. 1) providing a roughness with the spectrum ranging from nanometers to about 100 mm, a feature quite common for the powder bed AM processes.
As clearly visible from the images metal surface contains a number of powder grains strongly and rather loosely attached to the bulk metal providing a roughness with the spectrum ranging from nanometers to about 100-130 mm, a feature quite common for the powder bed AM processes.
A comparison of the HA films on titanium substrate surfaces modified by acid etching and pulse electron beam treatment revealed significant differences in the morphology of the films (roughness, grain size and shape) and the mechanical properties [12].

Kroll’s etchant (2 vol% HF, 6 vol% HNO3 in H2O) was used to develop the grain structure for imaging.
The number of mesh elements and load steps were increased until results converged.
The second graph of Figure 4 shows the effect of increasing the size of the representative volume by an integer number of unit cells in the x, y and z directions respectively, where the load is applied along the z-axis.
Etching reveals a grain structure typical of Ti-6Al-4V produced by EBM [9].
Figure 6: (Left) Etched cross section showing the grain structure of porous EBM Ti-6Al-4V.

The Al2O3 film was an amorphous structure, smooth surface with a nanoscale grain size.
The CIGS films grown on Mo/Al2O3/SLG substrate showed flat round grains as shown in Fig. 2(c), whereas the CIGS films grown with Na incorporation on Mo/Al2O3/SLG revealed relatively sharp grains as shown in Fig. 2(d).
The increase of (112) texture leaded to the increase of sharp grains that looked like the triangle shape.
And the increase of (220)(204) texture leaded to the increase of flat grains as seen from surface morphology.
We could see that the Ga-graded CIGS film had the lower thickness according to the number of interference fringes.

Selection of Coating Materials The coatings applied onto the substrate surface must meet a number of requirements.
Hardness Hardness HV 1 0 1200 1600 2000 2400 Rotational Speed Ratio NL 0,5 2,0 0,5 2,0 Hardness HV 0.1 0 1200 1600 2000 2400 Measuring Systems Leitz Miniload II (HV 1) Fischerscope H100 (HV 0.1) Pre-Treatment Face Lapping Lapping Grains F1200 Substrate Material Al2O3 Si3N4 HV 1 HV 0.1 Hardness Hardness HV 1 Hardness HV 1 0 1200 1600 2000 2400 Rotational Speed Ratio NL 0,5 2,0 0,5 2,0 Hardness HV 0.1 0 1200 1600 2000 2400 Measuring Systems Leitz Miniload II (HV 1) Fischerscope H100 (HV 0.1) Pre-Treatment Face Lapping Lapping Grains F1200 Substrate Material Al2O3 Si3N4 Substrate Material Substrate Material Al2O3 Si3N4 HV 1 HV 0.1 Fig. 2: Hardness HV 0.1 and HV 1 of substrates Al2O3 and Si3N4 Moreover, the micro hardness of the thin coatings was measured.
Residual Stress / Scratch Test Rotational Speed Ratio NL 0,5 2,0 0,5 2,0 Critical Load LC2 80 N 40 20 0 Lapping Grain F1200 Lapping Grain F280 Measuring Systems Huber 4-Circle Diffractometer Nikon Revetester Pre-Treatment Face Lapping Rotational Speed Ratio NL = 2,0 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 -1500 -1400 -1300 -1200 -1100 -1000 -900 -800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 II Informationstiefe ?
Al2O3 + ZrN 0,0 0,5 10 1,5 2,0 2,5 Residual Stress Residual Stress -300 -1500 -1300 -1100 -900 -700 MPa 02 , 5 1,51,00,5 µm Subsurface MPa - 400 - 200 0 200 400 600 02 , 5 1,51,00,5 µm Subsurface 1000 Rotational Speed Ratio NL = 2,0 Si3N4 + ZrN Substrate Material Al2O3 Si3N4 Residual Stress / Scratch Test Rotational Speed Ratio NL 0,5 2,0 0,5 2,0 Critical Load LC2 80 N 40 20 0 Lapping Grain F1200 Lapping Grain F280 Measuring Systems Huber 4-Circle Diffractometer Nikon Revetester Pre-Treatment Face Lapping Rotational Speed Ratio NL = 2,0 0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 -1500 -1400 -1300 -1200 -1100 -1000 -900 -800 -700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 II Informationstiefe ?

Three hypotheses are necessary to derive an universal probability function of failure for brittle materials (F=1 - exp[-Nc,s] where Nc,s is the mean number of critical defects in the specimen): (i) the density of defects has to be low enough so that interaction between flaws can be neglected, (ii) the material will fail when the weakest defect fails, and (iii) one can define a density of critical defects ρ.
Only surface defects (i.e. large grains, Fig. 4) were found as failure origins.
a b c d Fig. 4: a) A/AZ fracture surface presenting a fracture mirror and "waves" perpendicular to the interface in the fourth layer, arrow indicates fracture origin, b) abnormal large grains found in the laminates, c) large grains in A laminate acting like a notch, d) grain size comparison in A and AZ.
Through fractography, the presence of abnormally large grains (up to ~25 µm depth), which were responsible for failure, was revealed in both investigated materials (Fig. 4a, b and c).
This behaviour can be justified by the fact that the A/AZ as well as the A-laminate fractured due to a similar defect population, namely, large alumina grains at the tensile surface of the bend specimens.