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And the main infrared absorption peaks located at the low wave number zone indicate to some degree deviation under different doped ions.
However, during the final stage of sintering accelerated grain growth usually results in coarsening of the structure [10].
Further increase in temperature (up to 1250 ˚C) grain boundaries disappeared, a smooth surface formed as shown in Fig.2c (The change progress is alike with that of the sample1~4).

Theoretical calculations indicate that the binding energy is large for initially trapped H atoms, becoming smaller as trapping number is increased.
The maximum trapping number is believed to be r = 6, and the average binding energy is defined as b r b ee 6=∑ .
(6) The fast process, on the other hand, is ascribed to short-circuit diffusion along dislocations/grain boundaries.
In ordinary materials, as vacancy sources are prevalent on dislocations and grain boundaries, a time needed for Vac-H clusters to attain thermal equilibrium should be shorter.
Thus it is well expected that a large number of Vac-H clusters are present in electrodeposited metals.

This is because the N-CDs contains a large number of functional groups such as nitrogen and oxygen and these groups would interact with the ETL and perovskite, which reduce the defect/trap centers in PVSCs.
When N-CDs was introduced into perovskite cells, the hydrophilic functional groups would effectively interact with open unsaturated metal sites and halide anions which are located on the surface and boundary of perovskite grains, therefore, the carrier non-radiative recombination in PVSCs are significantly reduced.
The reason is that there are enough nitrogen-containing and oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of N-CDs on the grain boundary, which can strongly combine with Pb2+ and MA+ ions, thus controlling the crystallization of perovskite to inhibit the formation of morphological defects.
However, when the doping ratio increases to 1.5%, as shown in Fig. 6d, there can find that the grain size begins to decrease and the grain boundary defects increase, which may be because excessive N-CDs doping will cause damage to the quality of the perovskite film.
It is speculated that the N-CDs have rich nitrogen and oxygen-containing functional groups, which can effectively interact with the unsaturated metal sites and halide anions on the surface and grain boundary of perovskite.

In a heating stage, compressive stresses developed in the film at high temperatures tend to migrate atoms through a free surface and grain boundaries.
The hillocks are then considered to be formed on the film surface at triple points of grain boundaries.
Furthermore, the tensile stresses make voids at grain boundaries in the film.
The degree of the plastic deformation depends on the number of active dislocations and their sweep distance.
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 Number of bending, cycles Number of bending, cycles Number of bending, cycles Number of bending, cycles C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a Cu film 500nm Cu film 1000nm Cu film 2000nm -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02 1.0E+03 1.0E+04 1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 Number of bending, cycles C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a C h a n g e in re s id u a l s tre s s , M P a Cu500nm+AlN Cu1000nm+AlN Cu 2000nm+AlN Fig. 10 Change

The peak broadening was attributed to the grain refinement and second-order internal stresses [9, 15].
The reason was understandable: the grains glided along [111] slip direction in (110) slip plane and rotated by the definite rules during milling.
The (200) crystal faces of most grains paralleled to the surface of lamella Nb particles when the plastic deformation of particles was sufficient large, which made grain orientate along the (200) plane.
Although Nb(W) solid solution is perhaps formed, the dissolving of a small number of W atoms could not cause the obvious shifting of the Nb peaks.
The only α-Nb solid solution appeared in the hot-pressed materials and corresponding grain size was about 10 μm.

Since then, the technology has advanced rapidly, and the number of AM processes and materials available has expanded significantly [6, 7].
The number of available articles is huge and the topics are really widespread.
Additionally, the dimensions of the building plate in metal printers directly affect the number of parts that are planned to produce at the same time.
These columnar grains typically have diameters ranging from several to tens of micrometres, as shown in Fig. 3.
Solidification structures include primary columnar grains [77] In the initial solidification stage, columnar grains act as the primary solidification structure.

Silicon additive inhibits the growth of TiO2 grain and the anatase-rutile phase transformation.
With increasing the pore-forming agent, the number of micropores and mesopores increases.
It means that SiO2 particles effectively inhibit the growth of TiO2 grain and the phase transformation from anatase to rutile.
As the temperature increases, TiO2 grains gradually grow up and the crystalline improves constantly.
The number of active centers provided by the catalyst is enough to satisfy the needed number of the active centers for this reaction.

As expected, these films exhibit high quality, particularly in terms of grain uniformity, with a remarkable absence of cracks.
Moreover, the formation of small grain sizes, at the nanoscale, provides a larger active surface area available for photocatalytic reactions [4].
Various parameters affect the band gap value, such as oxygen vacancies, interstitial tin atoms, and grain size [16].
The large surface area of these nanoparticles was assumed to be the underlying reason, as this allows the adsorption of a greater number of dye molecules on the surfaces.
Awwad was funded by the Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University under grant number RGP2/144/45.

The results show that the powders prepared with the reactant concentration of 0.8M are spherical in particle shape with the grain size of 50nm－65nm.
Tetrabutyl titanate was dissolved in absolute ethanol with the concentration of 0.4M ether, and then tetrabutyl titanate solution was dropped slowly into the base solution with the same molar number by a constant-pressure dropping filler and permanently stirred quickly at 60˚C for 2h under the normal pressure.
(b), it can be seen that the nanosized spherical-shaped crystals are widely spread over the field of vision, and the mean grain size is about 77nm, which is comparable with the data obtained from TEM studies.
TEM micrographs indicated that the particles of product were spherical in shape with the grain size varying in the range from 50 nm to 65nm when the reactant concentration was 0.8M, which revealed that the particle size distributions were very narrow.

The mathematical method performs the allocation of the water resources to the different system components, keeping the number of control variables small, even for complex water resources like the one under study.
Implementation of DSS for water resources management-related decision making can be found in the researches and in a number of case studies.
A Short Description Of The Ningxia Irrigation Area Ningxia irrigation area shown in Fig. 1 is China's four major ancient irrigation districts, one of more than two thousand years of irrigation history, known as “Frontier of Jiangnan" reputation, mainly grain, cotton and oil-producing areas in Ningxia.
It is also one of the 12 commodity grain base in China.
It is an important part of the decision support system of water resource management, responsible for a large number of data storage, search, processing, and maintenance for the decision support system, and to extract data from all kinds of information resources from a variety of channels, and convert them into a variety of data structures required for water resource management decisions [8].