Modeling the Breakage of Agricultural Particulate Materials: Review

Abstract:

The breakage of agricultural particulate materials occurs throughout harvesting, transportation, post-harvest processing, storage, and milling size reduction operations. Corn particles, as a representative example, exhibit complex mechanical properties due to their different internal structure and moisture-dependent characteristics. This review summarizes recent advances in experimental and numerical investigations of corn particle breakage under various conditions. Breakage experimental measurements provide essential data for numerical simulations based on DEM with breakage models (Ab-T10, PRM, BPM). However, current DEM-based models often rely on simplified homogeneous assumptions that cannot yet reproduce moisture-dependent ductile-brittle transitions observed in real kernels, which limits quantitative prediction accuracy. The integration of experimental observations and simulation results contributes to a useful understanding of energy dissipation, progeny particle size distribution (PSD), and breakage patterns in agricultural materials. At the end, current challenges and potential research directions are discussed regarding agricultural particle fracture to achieve more accurate and scalable predictions of breakage behavior.

• Periodical: Advances in Science and Technology (Volume 181)
• Pages: 385-398
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-D01ibB
• Online since: August 2026
• Authors: Junhao Huang*
• Keywords: Ab-T10 Model, Breakage Modeling, DEM, Milling, Particulate Materials

References

[1] Z. Chen, C. Wassgren, and K. Ambrose, "A Review of Grain Kernel Damage: Mechanisms, Modeling, and Testing Procedures," Trans. ASABE, vol. 63, no. 2, p.455–475, 2020.

DOI: 10.13031/trans.13643

[2] S. Shen et al., "Analysis of the breakage characteristics of rice particle beds under confined compression tests," Powder Technol., vol. 418, p.118319, Mar. 2023.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2023.118319

[3] Y. Han et al., "Breakage behaviour of single rice particles under compression and impact," Adv. Powder Technol., vol. 32, no. 12, p.4635–4650, Dec. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2021.10.017

[4] Y. Zeng, F. Jia, Y. Xiao, Y. Han, and X. Meng, "Discrete element method modelling of impact breakage of ellipsoidal agglomerate," Powder Technol., vol. 346, p.57–69, Mar. 2019.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2019.01.082

[5] X. Kong, Q. Cao, and Z. Niu, "Experimental Research on Breakage Characteristics of Feed Pellets under Different Loading Methods," Agriculture, vol. 14, no. 8, p.1401, Aug. 2024.

DOI: 10.3390/agriculture14081401

[6] Crop Prospects and Food Situation. FAO, 2025.

DOI: 10.4060/cd4597en

[7] P. Chen et al., "Breakage mechanism of brown rice grain during rubber roll hulling," Biosyst. Eng., vol. 225, p.41–53, Jan. 2023.

DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2022.11.006

[8] G. K. Reynolds, J. S. Fu, Y. S. Cheong, M. J. Hounslow, and A. D. Salman, "Breakage in granulation: A review," Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 60, no. 14, p.3969–3992, July 2005.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2005.02.029

[9] S. Shen et al., "Simulation of rice grain breakage process based on Tavares UFRJ model," Particuology, vol. 93, p.65–74, Oct. 2024.

DOI: 10.1016/j.partic.2024.05.019

[10] L.M. Tavares, "Analysis of particle fracture by repeated stressing as damage accumulation," Powder Technol., vol. 190, no. 3, p.327–339, Mar. 2009.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2008.08.011

[11] W. Zuo and F. Shi, "Ore impact breakage characterisation using mixed particles in wide size range," Miner. Eng., vol. 86, p.96–103, Feb. 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2015.12.007

[12] Y. Su et al., "A combined experimental and DEM approach to optimize the centrifugal maize breakage tester," Powder Technol., vol. 397, p.117008, Jan. 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2021.11.052

[13] B.M. Ghodki, K. Charith Kumar, and T. K. Goswami, "Modeling breakage and motion of black pepper seeds in cryogenic mill," Adv. Powder Technol., vol. 29, no. 5, p.1055–1071, May 2018.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2018.01.023

[14] A.G. Chiaravalle, J. Piña, and I. M. Cotabarren, "DEM simulation of maize milling in a hammer mill," Powder Technol., vol. 457, p.120892, May 2025.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2025.120892

[15] F. Shi and T. Kojovic, "Validation of a model for impact breakage incorporating particle size effect," Int. J. Miner. Process., vol. 82, no. 3, p.156–163, Apr. 2007.

DOI: 10.1016/j.minpro.2006.09.006

[16] P.A. Cundall and O.D.L. Strack, "A discrete numerical model for granular assemblies," Géotechnique, vol. 29, no. 1, p.47–65, Mar. 1979.

DOI: 10.1680/geot.1979.29.1.47

[17] M. Mousaviraad, M. Z. Tekeste, and K. A. Rosentrater, "Calibration and Validation of a Discrete Element Model of Corn Using Grain Flow Simulation in a Commercial Screw Grain Auger," Trans. ASABE, vol. 60, no. 4, p.1403–1415, 2017.

DOI: 10.13031/trans.12200

[18] Y. Gao, G. De Simone, and M. Koorapaty, "Calibration and verification of DEM parameters for the quantitative simulation of pharmaceutical powder compression process," Powder Technol., vol. 378, p.160–171, Jan. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2020.09.019

[19] I. Keppler, F. Safranyik, and I. Oldal, "Shear test as calibration experiment for DEM simulations: a sensitivity study," Eng. Comput., vol. 33, no. 3, May 2016.

DOI: 10.1108/EC-03-2015-0056

[20] D.-D. Han, C. Tang, W. Li, L.-J. Xu, and L. Chen, "Calibration of corn kernel simulation parameters during harvest and evaluation of its adaptability," Comput. Part. Mech., vol. 12, no. 2, p.1001–1017, 2025.

DOI: 10.1007/s40571-024-00853-5

[21] F. Lyu, W. H. Hendriks, A. F. B. Van Der Poel, and M. Thomas, "Particle size distribution, energy consumption, nutrient composition and in vitro ileal digestion characteristics of hammer milled maize and soybean meal affected by moisture content," Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., vol. 288, p.115317, June 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2022.115317

[22] X. Kong, J. Liu, T. Yang, Y. Su, J. Geng, and Z. Niu, "Numerical simulation of feed pellet breakage in pneumatic conveying," Biosyst. Eng., vol. 218, p.31–42, June 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2022.03.012

[23] A.-C. Böttcher, C. Thon, G. Fragnière, A. Chagas, C. Schilde, and A. Kwade, "Rigidly-mounted roll mill as breakage tester for characterizing fine particle breakage," Powder Technol., vol. 383, p.554–563, May 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2021.01.055

[24] W. Kruszelnicka, P. Leda, A. Tomporowski, and K. Ambrose, "Breakage behavior of corn kernels subjected to repeated loadings," Powder Technol., vol. 435, p.119372, Feb. 2024.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2024.119372

[25] Y. Zeng, F. Jia, Y. Xiao, Y. Han, and X. Meng, "Discrete element method modelling of impact breakage of ellipsoidal agglomerate," Powder Technol., vol. 346, p.57–69, Mar. 2019.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2019.01.082

[26] Z. Chen, L. Li, Q. Tao, Y. Gan, and X. Liu, "DEM Simulation and Analysis for Drop-Weight Experiments of Barite Concrete Beam," in Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Civil Engineering and Transportation 2015, Guangzhou, China: Atlantis Press, 2015.

DOI: 10.2991/iccet-15.2015.259

[27] Y. Zhou, J. Zhang, S. Yu, and F. Wu, "Effect of inclination angle and fissure spacing on the dynamic fracturing processes of X-shaped fissured specimens: Insights from SHPB experiments and DEM-FDM simulations," Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech., vol. 142, p.105404, Mar. 2026.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tafmec.2025.105404

[28] Z. Chen, C. Wassgren, and R. P. K. Ambrose, "Development and validation of a DEM model for predicting impact damage of maize kernels," Biosyst. Eng., vol. 224, p.16–33, Dec. 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2022.09.012

[29] S.K. Dey, S. Dey, and A. Das, "Comminution features in an impact hammer mill," Powder Technol., vol. 235, p.914–920, Feb. 2013.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2012.12.003

[30] B. M. Ghodki and T. K. Goswami, "DEM simulation of flow of black pepper seeds in cryogenic grinding system," J. Food Eng., vol. 196, p.36–51, Mar. 2017.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.09.026

[31] N. Yancey, C.T. Wright, and T.L. Westover, "Optimizing hammer mill performance through screen selection and hammer design," Biofuels, vol. 4, no. 1, p.85–94, Jan. 2013.

DOI: 10.4155/bfs.12.77

[32] J. Du et al., "Investigation of the burial and mixing performance of a rotary tiller using discrete element method," Soil Tillage Res., vol. 220, p.105349, June 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.still.2022.105349

[33] J. Zhu, M. Zou, Y. Liu, K. Gao, B. Su, and Y. Qi, "Measurement and calibration of DEM parameters of lunar soil simulant," Acta Astronaut., vol. 191, p.169–177, Feb. 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.11.009

[34] C. Fang, J. Gong, Z. Nie, B. Li, and X. Li, "DEM study on the microscale and macroscale shear behaviours of granular materials with breakable and irregularly shaped particles," Comput. Geotech., vol. 137, p.104271, Sept. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2021.104271

[35] D. Shi, J. Niu, J. Zhang, Z. Chao, and G. Fowmes, "Effects of particle breakage on the mechanical characteristics of geogrid-reinforced granular soils under triaxial shear: A DEM investigation," Geomech. Energy Environ., vol. 34, p.100446, June 2023.

DOI: 10.1016/j.gete.2023.100446

[36] T. Zhang, C. Zhang, J. Zou, B. Wang, F. Song, and W. Yang, "DEM exploration of the effect of particle shape on particle breakage in granular assemblies," Comput. Geotech., vol. 122, p.103542, June 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2020.103542

[37] D.O. Potyondy and P.A. Cundall, "A bonded-particle model for rock," Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., vol. 41, no. 8, p.1329–1364, Dec. 2004.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.2004.09.011

[38] A.G. Chiaravalle, I.M. Cotabarren, and J. Piña, "DEM breakage calibration for single particle fracture of maize kernels under a particle replacement approach," Chem. Eng. Res. Des., vol. 195, p.151–165, July 2023.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2023.05.015

[39] N. Jiménez-Herrera, G.K.P. Barrios, and L.M. Tavares, "Comparison of breakage models in DEM in simulating impact on particle beds," Adv. Powder Technol., vol. 29, no. 3, p.692–706, Mar. 2018.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apt.2017.12.006

[40] P. Cleary, "Modelling comminution devices using DEM," Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech., vol. 25, no. 1, p.83–105, 2001, doi: 10.1002/1096-9853(200101)25: 1%3C83::AID-NAG120%3E3.0.CO;2-K.

DOI: 10.1002/1096-9853(200101)25:1<83::aid-nag120>3.0.co;2-k

[41] L.M. Tavares and R.P. King, "Modeling of particle fracture by repeated impacts using continuum damage mechanics," Powder Technol., vol. 123, no. 2–3, p.138–146, Mar. 2002.

DOI: 10.1016/S0032-5910(01)00438-7

[42] O. Ben-Nun and I. Einav, "The role of self-organization during confined comminution of granular materials," Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci., vol. 368, no. 1910, p.231–247, Jan. 2010.

DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2009.0205

[43] G. W. Delaney, R. D. Morrison, M. D. Sinnott, S. Cummins, and P. W. Cleary, "DEM modelling of non-spherical particle breakage and flow in an industrial scale cone crusher," Miner. Eng., vol. 74, p.112–122, Apr. 2015.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2015.01.013

[44] L. M. Tavares, F. P. André, A. Potapov, and C. Maliska, "Adapting a breakage model to discrete elements using polyhedral particles," Powder Technol., vol. 362, p.208–220, Feb. 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2019.12.007

[45] L. M. Tavares, V. A. Rodriguez, M. Sousani, C. B. Padros, and J. Y. Ooi, "An effective sphere-based model for breakage simulation in DEM," Powder Technol., vol. 392, p.473–488, Nov. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2021.07.031

[46] "Rocky DEM," 2022.

[47] J. Guo, G. Wang, G. Sun, S. Wang, W. Guan, and Z. Chen, "DEM simulation and optimization of crushing chamber shape of gyratory crusher based on Ab-t10 model," Miner. Eng., vol. 209, p.108606, Apr. 2024.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2024.108606

[48] S. Jiang, D. Ren, F. Ma, Z. Chen, and Y. Che, "PARAMETER CALIBRATION OF RICE STRAW PARTICLE–CRUSHING MODEL," Eng. Agríc., vol. 44, p. e20240063, 2024.

DOI: 10.1590/1809-4430-eng.agric.v44e20240063/2024

[49] H. Li, X. Kong, S. Jiang, and Z. Niu, "DEM study on crushing and screening performance of maize kernel in hammer mill," Comput. Part. Mech., July 2025.

DOI: 10.1007/s40571-025-01024-w

[50] Y. Su et al., "A combined experimental and DEM approach to optimize the centrifugal maize breakage tester," Powder Technol., vol. 397, p.117008, Jan. 2022.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2021.11.052

[51] B. Olaleye, C.-Y. Wu, and L. X. Liu, "Impact breakage of single pharmaceutical tablets in an air gun," Int. J. Pharm., vol. 597, p.120273, Mar. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120273

[52] Y. Han et al., "Analysis of breakage behavior of rice under impact," Powder Technol., vol. 394, p.533–546, Dec. 2021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2021.08.084

[53] J. Horabik and M. Molenda, "Parameters and contact models for DEM simulations of agricultural granular materials: A review," Biosyst. Eng., vol. 147, p.206–225, July 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2016.02.017