Additive Manufacturing of Supercapacitor Electrodes – Materials, Methods and Design

Abstract:

Fabrication of supercapacitor (SC) electrodes plays a vital role in enhancing the electrochemical performance of SCs. Conventional fabrication techniques have limitations in fabricating the complex SC electrodes. The three-dimentional (3D) printing technique has several advantages over conventional manufacturing techniques that includes patterning capability, contact-less high-resolution, controlled material deposition, design flexibility, and multi-material compatibility. Due to these excellent qualities, considerable research efforts have been made in developing 3D printed SC electrodes. This review offers a literature update on the recent printing materials employed and the design aspects in making of SC electrodes. It also discusses the impact of critical parameters involved in various techniques of 3D printing of electrodes. Finally, the paper concludes with the scope and challenges in material/manufacturing of electrodes and the performance comparative analysis of various 3D printed structures.

• Periodical: Key Engineering Materials (Volume 913)
• Pages: 59-75
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-t38h57
• Online since: March 2022
• Authors: Kiran Nargatti, Sandeep Ahankari*
• Keywords: 3D Printing, Additive Manufacturing, Energy Storage Devices, Supercapacitor

References

[1] J. Cao, Y. Zhao, Y. Xu, Y. Zhang, B. Zhang, H. Peng, Sticky-note supercapacitors, J. Mater. Chem. A. 6 (2018) 3355–3360.

DOI: 10.1039/c7ta10756k

[2] Y. Huang, Y. Zeng, M. Yu, P. Liu, Y. Tong, F. Cheng, X. Lu, Recent Smart Methods for Achieving High-Energy Asymmetric Supercapacitors, Small Methods. 2 (2018) 1700230–1700250.

DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201700230

[3] W. Xu, Z. Jiang, Q. Yang, W. Huo, M.S. Javed, Y. Li, L. Huang, X. Gu, C. Hu, Approaching the lithium-manganese oxides' energy storage limit with Li2MnO3 nanorods for high-performance supercapacitor, Nano Energy. 43 (2018) 168–176.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.10.046

[4] P. Simon, Y. Gogotsi, Materials for electrochemical capacitors, in: Vincent Dusastre (Ed.), Mater. Sustain. Energy, Co-Published with Macmillan Publishers Ltd, UK, 2010: p.138–147.

[5] M.M. Pérez-Madrigal, M.G. Edo, C. Alemán, Powering the future: Application of cellulose-based materials for supercapacitors, Green Chem. 18 (2016) 5930–5956.

DOI: 10.1039/c6gc02086k

[6] L. Zeng, P. Li, Y. Yao, B. Niu, S. Niu, B. Xu, Recent progresses of 3D printing technologies for structural energy storage devices, Mater. Today Nano. 12 (2020) 100094.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mtnano.2020.100094

[7] H.C. Chien, W.Y. Cheng, Y.H. Wang, S.Y. Lu, Ultrahigh specific capacitances for supercapacitors achieved by nickel cobaltite/carbon aerogel composites, Adv. Funct. Mater. 22 (2012) 5038–5043.

DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201201176

[8] Y.H. Lin, T.Y. Wei, H.C. Chien, S.Y. Lu, Manganese oxide/carbon aerogel composite: An outstanding supercapacitor electrode material, Adv. Energy Mater. 1 (2011) 901–907.

DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201100256

[9] B.K. Deka, A. Hazarika, J. Kim, Y. Bin Park, H.W. Park, Recent development and challenges of multifunctional structural supercapacitors for automotive industries, Int. J. Energy Res. 41 (2017) 1397–1411.

DOI: 10.1002/er.3707

[10] C. Ji, H. Mi, S. Yang, Latest advances in supercapacitors: From new electrode materials to novel device designs, Kexue Tongbao/Chinese Sci. Bull. 64 (2019) 9–34.

DOI: 10.1360/n972018-00815

[11] Technavio, Global Supercapacitor Market 2018-2022, (2018).

[12] K.V.G. Raghavendra, R. Vinoth, K. Zeb, C.V.V. Muralee Gopi, S. Sambasivam, M.R. Kummara, I.M. Obaidat, H.J. Kim, An intuitive review of supercapacitors with recent progress and novel device applications, J. Energy Storage. 31 (2020) 101652.

DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101652

[13] B.K. Kim, S. Sy, A. Yu, J. Zhang, Electrochemical Supercapacitors for Energy Storage and Conversion, in: Handb. Clean Energy Syst., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2015: p.1–25.

DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces112

[14] P. Harrop, Supercapacitor Markets, Technology Roadmap, Opportunities 2021-2041, 2020. www.IDTechEx.com/Supercaps.

[15] L. Zhang, X.S. Zhao, Carbon-based materials as supercapacitor electrodes, Chem. Soc. Rev. 38 (2009) 2520–2531.

[16] N.A. Kyeremateng, T. Brousse, D. Pech, Microsupercapacitors as miniaturized energy-storage components for on-chip electronics, Nat. Nanotechnol. 12 (2017) 7–15.

DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2016.196

[17] Z. Zhao, S. Wang, F. Wan, Z. Tie, Z. Niu, Scalable 3D Self-Assembly of MXene Films for Flexible Sandwich and Microsized Supercapacitors, Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 (2021) 2101302.

DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202101302

[18] V. Malgras, Q. Ji, Y. Kamachi, T. Mori, F.K. Shieh, K.C.W. Wu, K. Ariga, Y. Yamauchi, Templated synthesis for nanoarchitectured porous materials, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 88 (2015) 1171–1200.

DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.20150143

[19] J. Du, Q. Cao, X. Tang, X. Xu, X. Long, J. Ding, C. Guan, W. Huang, 3D printing-assisted gyroidal graphite foam for advanced supercapacitors, Chem. Eng. J. 416 (2021) 127885.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.127885

[20] M. Beidaghi, C. Wang, Micro-supercapacitors based on three dimensional interdigital polypyrrole/C-MEMS electrodes, Electrochim. Acta. 56 (2011) 9508–9514.

DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.08.054

[21] T.P. Mofokeng, Z.N. Tetana, K.I. Ozoemena, Defective 3D nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube-carbon fibre networks for high-performance supercapacitor: Transformative role of nitrogen-doping from surface-confined to diffusive kinetics, Carbon N. Y. 169 (2020) 312–326.

DOI: 10.1016/j.carbon.2020.07.049

[22] C. Zhu, T. Liu, F. Qian, T.Y.J. Han, E.B. Duoss, J.D. Kuntz, C.M. Spadaccini, M.A. Worsley, Y. Li, Supercapacitors Based on Three-Dimensional Hierarchical Graphene Aerogels with Periodic Macropores, Nano Lett. 16 (2016) 3448–3456.

DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b04965

[23] Y. Yang, Z. Chen, X. Song, B. Zhu, T. Hsiai, P.I. Wu, R. Xiong, J. Shi, Y. Chen, Q. Zhou, K.K. Shung, Three dimensional printing of high dielectric capacitor using projection based stereolithography method, Nano Energy. 22 (2016) 414–421.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.02.045

[24] J.R.C. Dizon, A.D. Valino, L.R. Souza, A.H. Espera, Q. Chen, R.C. Advincula, 3D printed injection molds using various 3D printing technologies, in: Mater. Sci. Forum, 2020: p.150–156.

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1005.150

[25] T.D. Ngo, A. Kashani, G. Imbalzano, K.T.Q. Nguyen, D. Hui, Additive manufacturing (3D printing): A review of materials, methods, applications and challenges, Compos. Part B Eng. 143 (2018) 172–196.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.02.012

[26] S.A.M. Tofail, E.P. Koumoulos, A. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bose, L. O'Donoghue, C. Charitidis, Additive manufacturing: scientific and technological challenges, market uptake and opportunities, Mater. Today. 21 (2018) 22–37.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2017.07.001

[27] A.H. Espera, J.R.C. Dizon, Q. Chen, R.C. Advincula, 3D-printing and advanced manufacturing for electronics, Prog. Addit. Manuf. 4 (2019) 245–267.

DOI: 10.1007/s40964-019-00077-7

[28] F. Zhang, M. Wei, V. V. Viswanathan, B. Swart, Y. Shao, G. Wu, C. Zhou, 3D printing technologies for electrochemical energy storage, Nano Energy. 40 (2017) 418–431.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.08.037

[29] W. Raza, F. Ali, N. Raza, Y. Luo, K.H. Kim, J. Yang, S. Kumar, A. Mehmood, E.E. Kwon, Recent advancements in supercapacitor technology, Nano Energy. 52 (2018) 441–473.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.08.013

[30] G. Wang, L. Zhang, J. Zhang, A review of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors, Chem. Soc. Rev. 41 (2012) 797–828.

DOI: 10.1039/c1cs15060j

[31] Y.Z. Zhang, Y. Wang, T. Cheng, L.Q. Yao, X. Li, W.Y. Lai, W. Huang, Printed supercapacitors: Materials, printing and applications, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 3229.

DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00819h

[32] X. Zhang, C. Jiang, J. Liang, W. Wu, Electrode materials and device architecture strategies for flexible supercapacitors in wearable energy storage, J. Mater. Chem. A. 9 (2021) 8099–8128.

DOI: 10.1039/d0ta12299h

[33] J. Liang, C. Jiang, W. Wu, Printed flexible supercapacitor: Ink formulation, printable electrode materials and applications, Appl. Phys. Rev. 8 (2021) 021319.

DOI: 10.1063/5.0048446

[34] Y. Zhang, H. xin Mei, Y. Cao, X. hua Yan, J. Yan, H. li Gao, H. wei Luo, S. wen Wang, X. dong Jia, L. Kachalova, J. Yang, S. chang Xue, C. gang Zhou, L. xia Wang, Y. hai Gui, Recent advances and challenges of electrode materials for flexible supercapacitors, Coord. Chem. Rev. 438 (2021) 213910.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2021.213910

[35] Z. Wang, Q. Zhang, S. Long, Y. Luo, P. Yu, Z. Tan, J. Bai, B. Qu, Y. Yang, J. Shi, H. Zhou, Z.Y. Xiao, W. Hong, H. Bai, Three-Dimensional Printing of Polyaniline/Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite for High-Performance Planar Supercapacitor, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 10 (2018) 10437–10444.

DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b19635

[36] T. Gao, Z. Zhou, J. Yu, J. Zhao, G. Wang, D. Cao, B. Ding, Y. Li, 3D Printing of Tunable Energy Storage Devices with Both High Areal and Volumetric Energy Densities, Adv. Energy Mater. 9 (2019) 1802578.

DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201802578

[37] Z. Stempien, M. Khalid, M. Kozicki, M. Kozanecki, H. Varela, P. Filipczak, R. Pawlak, E. Korzeniewska, E. Sąsiadek, In-situ deposition of reduced graphene oxide layers on textile surfaces by the reactive inkjet printing technique and their use in supercapacitor applications, Synth. Met. 256 (2019) 116144.

DOI: 10.1016/j.synthmet.2019.116144

[38] J.M. Munuera, J.I. Paredes, M. Enterría, S. Villar-Rodil, A.G. Kelly, Y. Nalawade, J.N. Coleman, T. Rojo, N. Ortiz-Vitoriano, A. Martínez-Alonso, J.M.D. Tascón, High Performance Na-O2 Batteries and Printed Microsupercapacitors Based on Water-Processable, Biomolecule-Assisted Anodic Graphene, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 12 (2020) 494–506.

DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b15509

[39] A. Tanwilaisiri, Y. Xu, R. Zhang, D. Harrison, J. Fyson, M. Areir, Design and fabrication of modular supercapacitors using 3D printing, J. Energy Storage. 16 (2018) 1–7.

DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2017.12.020

[40] M. Idrees, S. Ahmed, Z. Mohammed, N.S. Korivi, V. Rangari, 3D printed supercapacitor using porous carbon derived from packaging waste, Addit. Manuf. 36 (2020) 101525.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101525

[41] X. Chen, X. Wang, F. Liu, X. Song, H. Cui, Fabrication of NiO–ZnO-modified g-C3N4 hierarchical composites for high-performance supercapacitors, Vacuum. 178 (2020) 109453.

DOI: 10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109453

[42] C. An, Y. Zhang, H. Guo, Y. Wang, Metal oxide-based supercapacitors: progress and prospectives, Nanoscale Adv. 1 (2019) 4644–4658.

DOI: 10.1039/c9na00543a

[43] C. qi YI, J. peng ZOU, H. zhi YANG, X. LENG, Recent advances in pseudocapacitor electrode materials: Transition metal oxides and nitrides, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China (English Ed. 28 (2018) 1980–(2001).

DOI: 10.1016/s1003-6326(18)64843-5

[44] M.A.A. Mohd Abdah, N.H.N. Azman, S. Kulandaivalu, Y. Sulaiman, Review of the use of transition-metal-oxide and conducting polymer-based fibres for high-performance supercapacitors, Mater. Des. 186 (2020) 108199.

DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2019.108199

[45] T.N. Jebakumar Immanuel Edison, R. Atchudan, Y.R. Lee, Facile synthesis of carbon encapsulated RuO2 nanorods for supercapacitor and electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy. 44 (2019) 2323–2329.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.02.018

[46] H. Chen, X. Du, J. Sun, R. Wu, Y. Wang, C. Xu, Template-free synthesis of novel Co3O4 micro-bundles assembled with flakes for high-performance hybrid supercapacitors, Ceram. Int. 47 (2021) 716–724.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.08.181

[47] K. Shen, J. Ding, S. Yang, 3D Printing Quasi-Solid-State Asymmetric Micro-Supercapacitors with Ultrahigh Areal Energy Density, Adv. Energy Mater. 8 (2018) 1800408.

DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201800408

[48] E. Samuel, B. Joshi, Y. Il Kim, A. Aldalbahi, M. Rahaman, S.S. Yoon, ZnO/MnOx Nanoflowers for High-Performance Supercapacitor Electrodes, ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 8 (2020) 3697–3708.

DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06796

[49] P. Giannakou, M.O. Tas, B. Le Borgne, M. Shkunov, Water-Transferred, Inkjet-Printed Supercapacitors toward Conformal and Epidermal Energy Storage, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 12 (2020) 8456–8465.

DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b21283

[50] B. Yao, S. Chandrasekaran, J. Zhang, W. Xiao, F. Qian, C. Zhu, E.B. Duoss, C.M. Spadaccini, M.A. Worsley, Y. Li, Efficient 3D Printed Pseudocapacitive Electrodes with Ultrahigh MnO 2 Loading, Joule. 3 (2019) 459–470.

DOI: 10.1016/j.joule.2018.09.020

[51] Q. Meng, K. Cai, Y. Chen, L. Chen, Research progress on conducting polymer based supercapacitor electrode materials, Nano Energy. 36 (2017) 268–285.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.04.040

[52] M.M. Ovhal, N. Kumar, J.W. Kang, 3D direct ink writing fabrication of high-performance all-solid-state micro-supercapacitors, Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 705 (2020) 105–111.

DOI: 10.1080/15421406.2020.1743426

[53] ISO/ASTM52900-15, Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing – General Principles – Terminology, ASTM Int. West Conshohocken, PA, Www.Astm.Org. (2015).

[54] V. Egorov, U. Gulzar, Y. Zhang, S. Breen, C. O'Dwyer, Evolution of 3D Printing Methods and Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage, Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 2000556.

DOI: 10.1002/adma.202000556

[55] M. Cheng, R. Deivanayagam, R. Shahbazian‐Yassar, 3D Printing of Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices: A Review of Printing Techniques and Electrode/Electrolyte Architectures, Batter. Supercaps. 3 (2020) 130–146.

DOI: 10.1002/batt.201900130

[56] D.M. Soares, Z. Ren, S. Bin Mujib, S. Mukherjee, C.G. Martins Real, M. Anstine, H. Zanin, G. Singh, Additive Manufacturing of Electrochemical Energy Storage Systems Electrodes, Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 2 (2021) 2000111.

DOI: 10.1002/aesr.202000111

[57] J.R.C. Dizon, A.H. Espera, Q. Chen, R.C. Advincula, Mechanical characterization of 3D-printed polymers, Addit. Manuf. 20 (2018) 44–67.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2017.12.002

[58] A. Sajedi-Moghaddam, E. Rahmanian, N. Naseri, Inkjet-printing technology for supercapacitor application: Current state and perspectives, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 12 (2020) 34487–34504.

DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c07689

[59] B. Derby, Inkjet printing of functional and structural materials: Fluid property requirements, feature stability, and resolution, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 40 (2010) 395–414.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070909-104502

[60] Y. Lin, J. Chen, M.M. Tavakoli, Y. Gao, Y. Zhu, D. Zhang, M. Kam, Z. He, Z. Fan, Printable Fabrication of a Fully Integrated and Self-Powered Sensor System on Plastic Substrates, Adv. Mater. 31 (2019) 1804285.

DOI: 10.1002/adma.201804285

[61] X. Li, R. Chen, Y. Zhao, Q. Liu, J. Liu, J. Yu, J. Li, P. Liu, J. Li, J. Wang, Layer-by-layer inkjet printing GO film anchored Ni(OH)2 nanoflakes for high-performance supercapacitors, Chem. Eng. J. 375 (2019) 121988.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.121988

[62] S. Sollami Delekta, M. Östling, J. Li, Wet transfer of inkjet printed graphene for microsupercapacitors on arbitrary substrates, ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2 (2019) 158–163.

DOI: 10.1021/acsaem.8b01225

[63] V.G. Rocha, E. Saiz, I.S. Tirichenko, E. García-Tuñón, Direct ink writing advances in multi-material structures for a sustainable future, J. Mater. Chem. A. 8 (2020) 15646–15657.

DOI: 10.1039/d0ta04181e

[64] K.K.B. Hon, L. Li, I.M. Hutchings, Direct writing technology-Advances and developments, CIRP Ann. - Manuf. Technol. 57 (2008) 601-620.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cirp.2008.09.006

[65] M. Wei, F. Zhang, W. Wang, P. Alexandridis, C. Zhou, G. Wu, 3D direct writing fabrication of electrodes for electrochemical storage devices, J. Power Sources. 354 (2017) 134–147.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.04.042

[66] M. Cheng, A. Ramasubramanian, M.G. Rasul, Y. Jiang, Y. Yuan, T. Foroozan, R. Deivanayagam, M. Tamadoni Saray, R. Rojaee, B. Song, V.R. Yurkiv, Y. Pan, F. Mashayek, R. Shahbazian-Yassar, Direct Ink Writing of Polymer Composite Electrolytes with Enhanced Thermal Conductivities, Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 (2021) 2006683.

DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202006683

[67] W. Yu, H. Zhou, B.Q. Li, S. Ding, 3D Printing of Carbon Nanotubes-Based Microsupercapacitors, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 9 (2017) 4597–4604.

DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b13904

[68] K. Tang, H. Ma, Y. Tian, Z. Liu, H. Jin, S. Hou, K. Zhou, X. Tian, 3D printed hybrid-dimensional electrodes for flexible micro-supercapacitors with superior electrochemical behaviours, Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 15 (2020) 511–519.

DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2020.1842619

[69] Y. Wang, Y. Shi, Y. Gu, P. Xue, X. Xu, Self-healing and highly stretchable hydrogel for interfacial compatible flexible paper-based micro-supercapacitor, Materials (Basel). 14 (2021) 1852.

DOI: 10.3390/ma14081852

[70] F. Ning, W. Cong, J. Qiu, J. Wei, S. Wang, Additive manufacturing of carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites using fused deposition modeling, Compos. Part B Eng. 80 (2015) 369–378.

DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2015.06.013

[71] A. Maurel, M. Courty, B. Fleutot, H. Tortajada, K. Prashantha, M. Armand, S. Grugeon, S. Panier, L. Dupont, Highly Loaded Graphite-Polylactic Acid Composite-Based Filaments for Lithium-Ion Battery Three-Dimensional Printing, Chem. Mater. 30 (2018) 7484–7493.

DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b02062

[72] H.H. Bin Hamzah, O. Keattch, D. Covill, B.A. Patel, The effects of printing orientation on the electrochemical behaviour of 3D printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)/carbon black electrodes, Sci. Rep. 8 (2018) 9135.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27188-5

[73] J. Xue, L. Gao, X. Hu, K. Cao, W. Zhou, W. Wang, Y. Lu, Stereolithographic 3D Printing-Based Hierarchically Cellular Lattices for High-Performance Quasi-Solid Supercapacitor, Nano-Micro Lett. 11 (2019) 46.

DOI: 10.1007/s40820-019-0280-2

[74] S. Zekoll, C. Marriner-Edwards, A.K.O. Hekselman, J. Kasemchainan, C. Kuss, D.E.J. Armstrong, D. Cai, R.J. Wallace, F.H. Richter, J.H.J. Thijssen, P.G. Bruce, Hybrid electrolytes with 3D bicontinuous ordered ceramic and polymer microchannels for all-solid-state batteries, Energy Environ. Sci. 11 (2018) 185–201.

DOI: 10.1039/c7ee02723k

[75] Q. Chen, R. Xu, Z. He, K. Zhao, L. Pan, Printing 3D Gel Polymer Electrolyte in Lithium-Ion Microbattery Using Stereolithography, J. Electrochem. Soc. 164 (2017) A1852.

DOI: 10.1149/2.0651709jes

[76] J.P. Mensing, T. Lomas, A. Tuantranont, 2D and 3D printing for graphene based supercapacitors and batteries: A review, Sustain. Mater. Technol. 25 (2020) e00190.

DOI: 10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00190

[77] S.H. Park, M. Kaur, D. Yun, W.S. Kim, Hierarchically Designed Electron Paths in 3D Printed Energy Storage Devices, Langmuir. 34 (2018) 10897–10904.

DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02404

[78] P. Chang, H. Mei, Y. Tan, Y. Zhao, W. Huang, L. Cheng, A 3D-printed stretchable structural supercapacitor with active stretchability/flexibility and remarkable volumetric capacitance, J. Mater. Chem. A. 8 (2020) 13646–13658.

DOI: 10.1039/d0ta04460a

[79] A. García-Miranda Ferrari, J.L. Pimlott, M.P. Down, S.J. Rowley-Neale, C.E. Banks, MoO2 Nanowire Electrochemically Decorated Graphene Additively Manufactured Supercapacitor Platforms, Adv. Energy Mater. 11 (2021) 2100433.

DOI: 10.1002/aenm.202100433

[80] J. Wang, F. Li, F. Zhu, O.G. Schmidt, Recent Progress in Micro-Supercapacitor Design, Integration, and Functionalization, Small Methods. 3 (2019) 1800367.

DOI: 10.1002/smtd.201800367

[81] U. Gulzar, C. Glynn, C. O'Dwyer, Additive manufacturing for energy storage: Methods, designs and material selection for customizable 3D printed batteries and supercapacitors, Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 20 (2020) 46–53.

DOI: 10.1016/j.coelec.2020.02.009

[82] M. Beidaghi, Y. Gogotsi, Capacitive energy storage in micro-scale devices: Recent advances in design and fabrication of micro-supercapacitors, Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014) 867–884.

DOI: 10.1039/c3ee43526a

[83] N. Liu, Y. Gao, Recent Progress in Micro-Supercapacitors with In-Plane Interdigital Electrode Architecture, Small. 13 (2017).

DOI: 10.1002/smll.201701989

[84] D. Qi, Y. Liu, Z. Liu, L. Zhang, X. Chen, Design of Architectures and Materials in In-Plane Micro-supercapacitors: Current Status and Future Challenges, Adv. Mater. 29 (2017) 1602802.

DOI: 10.1002/adma.201602802

[85] X. Tian, J. Jin, S. Yuan, C.K. Chua, S.B. Tor, K. Zhou, Emerging 3D-Printed Electrochemical Energy Storage Devices: A Critical Review, Adv. Energy Mater. 7 (2017) 1700127.

DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201700127

[86] T.S. Tran, N.K. Dutta, N.R. Choudhury, Graphene-based inks for printing of planar micro-supercapacitors: A review, Mater. 12 (2019) 978.

DOI: 10.3390/ma12060978

[87] M.R. Hartings, Z. Ahmed, Chemistry from 3D printed objects, Nat. Rev. Chem. 3 (2019) 305–314.

DOI: 10.1038/s41570-019-0097-z