Tribological Properties of Additively Manufactured Al-Si Alloys and Steels

Abstract:

Metals are prone to wear through the separation of wear debris particles as well as the plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material. Particle sizes range from millimetres to nanometres. Erosion is the gradual, layer-by-layer destruction of a metallic object's surface brought on by mechanical pressure or electrical discharges. Metals erode as a result of surface friction, wear, cavitation, and the influence of powerful gas or liquid currents on a surface. Jet engines, nuclear reactors, steam turbines, and boilers might all suffer damage from erosion. By enhancing process technology or unit design, using better materials, and applying heat treatment, it is possible to strengthen the resistance of components against erosion. AlSi10Mg is a hypoeutectic alloy that may be additively manufactured due to its limited solidification range, which reduces hot cracking susceptibility during cooling. Complex bulk and open-cell structures with outstanding strength ratio (strength-to-weight ratio) and good formability may be created using additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys, particularly AlSi10Mg. Carbon, manganese, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, chromium, nickel, copper, and niobium are all present in the pH grade of 17-4. This combination of high strength and corrosion resistance benefits a 17-4 PH stainless steel grade. It may be utilised effectively in a variety of applications due to its high tensile strength and exceptional corrosion resistance.Powder bed fusion is one of the most mature metal additive methods, and as such, it benefits from decades of industrial expertise. PBF can satisfy demands of creating a new component and need to iterate on ideas quickly or are searching for a more efficient procedure to produce sophisticated components. Material waste is reduced because building the part layer by layer reduces the majority of the waste associated with subtractive manufacturing processes. Any surplus powder is collected and recycled when the item is finished. This review researches about the wear and erosion behaviour of Al-Si Alloy and steels printed using additive manufacturing methods. Finally, the findings of this review are summarised, and recommendations are made for future research aimed at resolving current issues and advancing technology.

• Periodical: Materials Science Forum (Volume 1109)
• Pages: 135-150
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-hRaR1o
• Online since: December 2023
• Authors: Pooja Angolkar*, Mohammed Manzoor Hussain
• Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Aluminium, Erosion, Steel, Wear

References

[1] "IannGibsonn· DaviddRosen BrenttStucker Additive Manufacturing Technologies 3D Printing, Rapid Prototyping, and Direct Digital Manufacturing Second Edition."

[2] Ó. Teixeira, F. J. G. Silva, L. P. Ferreira, and E. Atzeni, "A review of heat treatments on improving the quality and residual stresses of the Ti–6Al–4V parts produced by additive manufacturing," Metals, vol. 10, no. 8. MDPI AG, p.1–24, Aug. 01, 2020.

DOI: 10.3390/met10081006

[3] P. Stavropoulos, P. Foteinopoulos, and A. Papapacharalampopoulos, "On the impact of additive manufacturing processes complexity on modelling," Applied Sciences (Switzerland), vol. 11, no. 16, Aug. 2021.

DOI: 10.3390/app11167743

[4] M. Yakout and M. A. Elbestawi, "Residual stress formation in laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) of Invar 36," in ASTM Special Technical Publication, ASTM International, 2020, p.34–44.

DOI: 10.1520/STP163120190149

[5] A. K. Madan, A. Kumar, and A. Rana, "Additive Manufacturing in Aerospace Application," International Advanced Research Journal in Science, Engineering and Technology, vol. 8, no. 11, 2021.

[6] K. V. Wong and A. Hernandez, "A Review of Additive Manufacturing," ISRN Mechanical Engineering, vol. 2012, p.1–10, Aug. 2012.

DOI: 10.5402/2012/208760

[7] D. C. Washington, "Department of Defense Additive Manufacturing Strategy," 2021.

[8] O. S. Ivanova, C. B. Williams, and T. A. Campbell, "ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING (AM) AND NANOTECHNOLOGY: PROMISES AND CHALLENGES."

[9] D. G. Ahn, "Direct metal additive manufacturing processes and their sustainable applications for green technology: A review," International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing - Green Technology, vol. 3, no. 4. Korean Society for Precision Engineering, p.381–395, Oct. 01, 2016.

DOI: 10.1007/s40684-016-0048-9

[10] J. List and F. Tietze, Additive Manufacturing Innovations by UK Organisations. 2017. [Online]. Available: www.ifm.eng.cam.ac.uk

[11] B. Vayre, F. Vignat, and F. Villeneuve, "Metallic additive manufacturing: State-of-the-art review and prospects," Mechanics and Industry, vol. 13, no. 2, p.89–96, 2012.

DOI: 10.1051/meca/2012003

[12] F. H. Kim and S. P. Moylan, "Literature review of metal additive manufacturing defects," Gaithersburg, MD, May 2018.

DOI: 10.6028/NIST.AMS.100-16

[13] S. M. Yusuf, S. Cutler, and N. Gao, "Review: The impact of metal additive manufacturing on the aerospace industry," Metals, vol. 9, no. 12. MDPI AG, Dec. 01, 2019.

DOI: 10.3390/met9121286

[14] F. Del Re et al., "Statistical approach for assessing the effect of powder reuse on the final quality of AlSi10Mg parts produced by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing," International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 97, no. 5–8, p.2231–2240, Jul. 2018.

DOI: 10.1007/s00170-018-2090-y

[15] M. Yakout, M. A. Elbestawi, and S. C. Veldhuis, "A review of metal additive manufacturing technologies," in Solid State Phenomena, Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2018, p.1–14.

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.278.1

[16] W. E. Frazier, "Metal additive manufacturing: A review," Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, vol. 23, no. 6. Springer New York LLC, p.1917–1928, 2014.

DOI: 10.1007/s11665-014-0958-z

[17] T. M. Mower and M. J. Long, "Mechanical behavior of additive manufactured, powder-bed laser-fused materials," Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 651, p.198–213, Jan. 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2015.10.068

[18] R. Sreenivasan, A. Goel, and D. L. Bourell, "Sustainability issues in laser-based additive manufacturing," in Physics Procedia, Elsevier B.V., 2010, p.81–90.

DOI: 10.1016/j.phpro.2010.08.124

[19] A. A. Mousa and M. O. Bashir, "JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS Additive Manufacturing: A New Industrial Revolution-A Review", [Online]. Available: www.jsciachv.com

[20] W. Li et al., "Effect of heat treatment on AlSi10Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting: Microstructure evolution, mechanical properties and fracture mechanism," Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 663, p.116–125, Apr. 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2016.03.088

[21] D. Wang et al., "Lightweight design of an AlSi10Mg aviation control stick additively manufactured by laser powder bed fusion," Rapid Prototyp J, Oct. 2022.

DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-02-2022-0064

[22] C. EngagedScholarship, C. All Maxine Goodman Levin School of Urban Affairs Publications Maxine Goodman Levin, M. Piazza, and S. Alexander, "Additive Manufacturing: A Summary of the Literature," 2015. [Online]. Available: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/urban_facpub

[23] "CbDmQJG W@8ruD0 ~@TI~."

[24] K. Sridhar and V. Balasubramanian, "Erosion–Corrosion-Resistant Coatings for Seawater Piping Components—A Review," 2022, p.591–610.

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-9302-1_30

[25] B. A. Lindsley and A. R. Marder, "Wear 225-229," 1999.

[26] S. Zafar and A. K. Sharma, "Abrasive and erosive wear behaviour of nanometric WC-12Co microwave clads," Wear, vol. 346–347, p.29–45, Jan. 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.wear.2015.11.003

[27] C. Samuel. S, M. Arivarasu, and T. R. Prabhu, "High temperature dry sliding wear behaviour of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718," Addit Manuf, vol. 34, Jan. 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101279

[28] W. J. Sames, F. A. List, S. Pannala, R. R. Dehoff, and S. S. Babu, "The metallurgy and processing science of metal additive manufacturing," International Materials Reviews, vol. 61, no. 5. Taylor and Francis Ltd., p.315–360, 2016.

DOI: 10.1080/09506608.2015.1116649

[29] M. Yakout, M. A. Elbestawi, and S. C. Veldhuis, "A review of metal additive manufacturing technologies," in Solid State Phenomena, Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2018, p.1–14.

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.278.1

[30] J. Beddoes & M. J. Bibby, "Principles of Metal Manufacturing Processes," 1999. Accessed: Feb. 15, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://ia803004.us.archive.org/7/items/j.beddoesm.bibbyprinciplesofmetalmanufacturingprocessesarnold1999/J.%20Beddoes%2C%20M.%20Bibby%20-%20Principles%20of%20metal%20manufacturing%20processes-Arnold%20(1999).pdf

[31] W. J. Tomlinson and S. J. Matthews, "Cavitation erosion of aluminium alloys," 1994.

[32] B. Vayre, F. Vignat, and F. Villeneuve, "Metallic additive manufacturing: State-of-the-art review and prospects," Mechanics and Industry, vol. 13, no. 2, p.89–96, 2012.

DOI: 10.1051/meca/2012003

[33] K. Kempen, L. Thijs, J. Van Humbeeck, and J. P. Kruth, "Mechanical Properties of AlSi10Mg Produced by Selective Laser Melting," in Physics Procedia, Elsevier B.V., 2012, p.439–446.

DOI: 10.1016/j.phpro.2012.10.059

[34] C. Zhang, H. Zhu, H. Liao, Y. Cheng, Z. Hu, and X. Zeng, "Effect of heat treatments on fatigue property of selective laser melting AlSi10Mg," Int J Fatigue, vol. 116, p.513–522, Nov. 2018.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2018.07.016

[35] S. C. Samuel, M. Arivarasu, and T. R. Prabhu, "High-Temperature Solid Particle Erosion Behavior of Laser Powder Bed Fused Inconel 718," J Tribol, vol. 144, no. 9, Sep. 2022.

DOI: 10.1115/1.4054052

[36] D. G. Ahn, "Direct metal additive manufacturing processes and their sustainable applications for green technology: A review," International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing - Green Technology, vol. 3, no. 4. Korean Society for Precision Engineering, p.381–395, Oct. 01, 2016.

DOI: 10.1007/s40684-016-0048-9

[37] M. Mahfoud and D. Emadi, "Aluminum recycling - Challenges and opportunities," in Advanced Materials Research, 2010, p.571–578.

DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.83-86.571

[38] 2, Brennan D. Yahata1, Jacob M. Hundley1, Justin A. Mayer1, Tobias A. Schaedler1  & Tresa M. Pollock2 John H. Martin1, "3D printing of high-strength aluminium alloys".

[39] N. Takata, K. Oide, T. Kobayashi, A. Suzuki, and M. Kobashi, "Toward understanding the mechanism behind microstructure development of aluminum alloy powders additively manufactured by selective laser melting," Funtai Oyobi Fummatsu Yakin/Journal of the Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy, vol. 66, no. 12, p.573–580, 2019.

DOI: 10.2497/jjspm.66.573

[40] S. Siddique, M. Imran, E. Wycisk, C. Emmelmann, and F. Walther, "Influence of process-induced microstructure and imperfections on mechanical properties of AlSi12 processed by selective laser melting," J Mater Process Technol, vol. 221, p.205–213, 2015.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.02.023

[41] P. Hanzl, M. Zetek, T. Bakša, and T. Kroupa, "The influence of processing parameters on the mechanical properties of SLM parts," in Procedia Engineering, Elsevier Ltd, 2015, p.1405–1413.

DOI: 10.1016/j.proeng.2015.01.510

[42] B. Nurel, M. Nahmany, N. Frage, A. Stern, and O. Sadot, "Split Hopkinson pressure bar tests for investigating dynamic properties of additively manufactured AlSi10Mg alloy by selective laser melting," Addit Manuf, vol. 22, p.823–833, Aug. 2018.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.001

[43] K. Kempen, L. Thijs, J. Van Humbeeck, and J. P. Kruth, "Mechanical Properties of AlSi10Mg Produced by Selective Laser Melting," in Physics Procedia, Elsevier B.V., 2012, p.439–446

DOI: 10.1016/j.phpro.2012.10.059

[44] P. Snopiński, A. Woźniak, and M. Pagáč, "Microstructural evolution, hardness, and strengthening mechanisms in SLM AlSi10Mg Alloy subjected to equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP)," Materials, vol. 14, no. 24, Dec. 2021.

DOI: 10.3390/ma14247598

[45] B. Zhang, X. Han, C. Chen, W. Zhang, H. Liao, and B. Chen, "Effect of the strut size and tilt angle on the geometric characteristics of selective laser melting AlSi10Mg," Rapid Prototyp J, vol. 27, no. 5, p.879–889, 2021.

DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-08-2020-0187

[46] W. Li et al., "Effect of heat treatment on AlSi10Mg alloy fabricated by selective laser melting: Microstructure evolution, mechanical properties and fracture mechanism," Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 663, p.116–125, Apr. 2016.

DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2016.03.088

[47] L. Cheng and A. To, "Part-scale build orientation optimization for minimizing residual stress and support volume for metal additive manufacturing: Theory and experimental validation," CAD Computer Aided Design, vol. 113, p.1–23, Aug. 2019.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cad.2019.03.004

[48] L. Zhuo et al., "Effect of post-process heat treatment on microstructure and properties of selective laser melted AlSi10Mg alloy," Mater Lett, vol. 234, p.196–200, Jan. 2019.

DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2018.09.109

[49] Y. Chen, C. Zhou, and J. Lao, "A Layerless Additive Manufacturing Process based on CNC Accumulation." [Online]. Available: www.machsupport.com

[50] B. Zhang, X. Han, C. Chen, W. Zhang, H. Liao, and B. Chen, "Effect of the strut size and tilt angle on the geometric characteristics of selective laser melting AlSi10Mg," Rapid Prototyp J, vol. 27, no. 5, p.879–889, 2021.

DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-08-2020-0187

[51] P. Angolkar and M. Hussian, "Effect of build direction and surface finish on wear behavior of AlSi10Mg alloy casted by laser powder bed fusion," Metallurgical Research and Technology, vol. 119, no. 4, 2022.

DOI: 10.1051/metal/2022048

[52] J. K. Tiwari, A. Mandal, N. Sathish, A. K. Agrawal, and A. K. Srivastava, "Investigation of porosity, microstructure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured graphene reinforced AlSi10Mg composite," Addit Manuf, vol. 33, May 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101095

[53] F. Trevisan et al., "On the selective laser melting (SLM) of the AlSi10Mg alloy: Process, microstructure, and mechanical properties," Materials, vol. 10, no. 1. MDPI AG, 2017.

DOI: 10.3390/ma10010076

[54] P. Wang, H. Lei, X. Zhu, H. Chen, and D. Fang, "Influence of AlSi10Mg particles microstructure on heat conduction during additive manufacturing," Int J Heat Mass Transf, vol. 144, Dec. 2019.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118632

[55] N. Haghdadi, M. Laleh, M. Moyle, and S. Primig, "Additive manufacturing of steels: a review of achievements and challenges," Journal of Materials Science, vol. 56, no. 1. Springer, p.64–107, Jan. 01, 2021.

DOI: 10.1007/s10853-020-05109-0

[56] "3D opportunity in the automotive industry Additive manufacturing hits the road A Deloitte series on additive manufacturing."

[57] A. E. Alexander, N. Wake, L. Chepelev, P. Brantner, J. Ryan, and K. C. Wang, "A guideline for 3D printing terminology in biomedical research utilizing ISO/ASTM standards," 3D Print Med, vol. 7, no. 1, Dec. 2021.

DOI: 10.1186/s41205-021-00098-5

[58] J. Delgado, J. Ciurana, and C. A. Rodríguez, "Influence of process parameters on part quality and mechanical properties for DMLS and SLM with iron-based materials," in International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, May 2012, p.601–610.

DOI: 10.1007/s00170-011-3643-5

[59] S. M. Yeon et al., "Normalizing Effect of Heat Treatment Processing on 17-4 PH Stainless Steel Manufactured by Powder Bed Fusion," Metals (Basel), vol. 12, no. 5, May 2022.

DOI: 10.3390/met12050704

[60] N. Haghdadi, M. Laleh, M. Moyle, and S. Primig, "Additive manufacturing of steels: a review of achievements and challenges," Journal of Materials Science, vol. 56, no. 1. Springer, p.64–107, Jan. 01, 2021.

DOI: 10.1007/s10853-020-05109-0

[61] E. T. A. M. I. and S. P. A. Bayode, "Microstructure and Microhardness of 17-4 PH  Stainless Steel Made by Laser Metal Deposition," in Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2016 Vol II  WCECS 2016, October 19-21, 2016, San Francisco, USA.

[62] R. Ansari, T. Ghara, D. Adak, S. Das, and B. Haldar, "Study on erosion wear of steels under varying abrasive jet," 2018. [Online]. Available: www.sciencedirect.comwww.materialstoday.com/proceedings

DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.303

[63] L. Rozumová and T. Melichar, "MICROSTRUCTURAL EVALUATION OF PRESELECTED STEELS FOR TURBINE AFTER SUPERCRITICAL CO2 EXPOSURE," 2021.

[64] R. Ebara, "The influence of metallurgical factors on corrosion fatigue strength of stainless steels," in Procedia Structural Integrity, Elsevier B.V., 2016, p.517–524.

DOI: 10.1016/j.prostr.2016.06.067

[65] P. Köhnen, S. Ewald, J. H. Schleifenbaum, A. Belyakov, and C. Haase, "Controlling microstructure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured high-strength steels by tailored solidification," Addit Manuf, vol. 35, Oct. 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101389

[66] I. Mutlu and E. Oktay, "PROCESSING AND PROPERTIES OF HIGHLY POROUS 17-4 PH STAINLESS STEEL."

[67] "L-PBF and Heat Treatment of 17-4PH steel." [Online]. Available: https://www.sirris.be/inside-metal-additive-

[68] X. Lin, Y. Cao, X. Wu, H. Yang, J. Chen, and W. Huang, "Microstructure and mechanical properties of laser forming repaired 17-4PH stainless steel," Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 553, p.80–88, Sep. 2012.

DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2012.05.095

[69] A. Mauduit, P. Auguste, L. Fouquet, and S. Pillot, "STUDY ON 17-4 PH STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCED BY SELECTIVE LASER MELTING," Bull., Series B, vol. 80, 2018, [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329586854

[70] D. Guo, C. T. Kwok, L. M. Tam, D. Zhang, and X. Li, "Hardness, microstructure and texture of friction surfaced 17-4PH precipitation hardening stainless steel coatings with and without subsequent aging," Surf Coat Technol, vol. 402, Nov. 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2020.126302

[71] M. S. Yılmaz, G. Özer, Z. Ç. Öter, and O. Ertuğrul, "Effects of hot isostatic pressing and heat treatments on structural and corrosion properties of direct metal laser sintered parts," Rapid Prototyp J, vol. 27, no. 5, p.1059–1067, 2021.

DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-10-2020-0245

[72] D. Godec, S. Cano, C. Holzer, and J. Gonzalez-Gutierrez, "Optimization of the 3D printing parameters for tensile properties of specimens produced by fused filament fabrication of 17-4PH stainless steel," Materials, vol. 13, no. 3, Feb. 2020.

DOI: 10.3390/ma13030774

[73] J. Wang, Y. Lin, M. Li, H. Fan, D. Zeng, and J. Xiong, "Effects of the treating time on microstructure and erosion corrosion behavior of salt-bath-nitrided 17-4PH stainless steel," Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B: Process Metallurgy and Materials Processing Science, vol. 44, no. 4, p.1010–1016, 2013.

DOI: 10.1007/s11663-013-9841-9

[74] P. Angolkar, "Effect of Build Orientation on the Wear Behaviour of 17-4-PH SS Printed using Laser Powder Fusion Bed."

DOI: 10.46254/in02.20220652

[75] T. Sınmazçelik, S. Fidan, and S. Ürgün, "Effects of 3D printed surface texture on erosive wear," Tribol Int, vol. 144, Apr. 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.triboint.2019.106110

[76] A. Bandyopadhyay, Y. Zhang, and S. Bose, "Recent developments in metal additive manufacturing," Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, vol. 28. Elsevier Ltd, p.96–104, Jun. 01, 2020.

DOI: 10.1016/j.coche.2020.03.001

[77] J. J. Lewandowski and M. Seifi, "Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review of Mechanical Properties," Annual Review of Materials Research, vol. 46. Annual Reviews Inc., p.151–186, Jul. 01, 2016.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070115-032024

[78] W. J. Sames, F. A. List, S. Pannala, R. R. Dehoff, and S. S. Babu, "The metallurgy and processing science of metal additive manufacturing," International Materials Reviews, vol. 61, no. 5. Taylor and Francis Ltd., p.315–360, 2016.

DOI: 10.1080/09506608.2015.1116649

[79] A. Yadollahi, N. Shamsaei, S. M. Thompson, A. Elwany, and L. Bian, "Effects of building orientation and heat treatment on fatigue behavior of selective laser melted 17-4 PH stainless steel," Int J Fatigue, vol. 94, p.218–235, 2017

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2016.03.014