Materials Science Forum Vol. 959

Abstract: The expected increase in electric mobility is accompanied by an additional demand for copper, which is needed for the electric drivetrain consisting of the electric motor and auxiliary components. Key of the presented work is a simulation model to assess the implications of this additional copper demand on stocks and scrap flows of copper in the EU28, North America and China until the year 2050. The calculation results indicate that in the mid 2030s the copper used for electric vehicles starts having a considerable influence on both stocks and scrap flows. With 3 million tonnes of additional copper scrap in 2050, scrap from electric vehicles accounts for ~17% of China's total copper scrap. In absolute terms, this scrap flow is five times higher than the corresponding flows in Europe and North America. Therefore, China seems to be particularly promising as a location for recyclers and (secondary) copper smelters to expand their businesses.

Abstract: Higher efficiency in raw material recycling is discussed as a key strategy to decrease the environmental impact of resource consumption and to improve materials’ availability in order to mitigate supply risks. However, particularly in the case of technology metals, demand is driven by specific emerging technologies from which recycling will not be possible before the end of their useful lifetimes. Hence, the availability of secondary materials is limited by the amount of obsolete products as well as their collection, separation and treatment during waste management and recycling. In this paper, we present the results of a dynamic material flow model for cobalt as a key raw material for lithium-ion batteries at an European level (EU28). This model aims at quantifying the current state of recycling and future recycling potentials from end-of-life (EoL) product flows. While it is expectable that obsolete large battery packs from (hybrid) electric vehicles will be efficiently collected in future, EoL Li-ion battery flows will remain dominated by smaller electronic equipment (smartphones, laptops etc.) in the coming years and the model results show a significant potential for improvements in collection and material recovery from EoL batteries in Europe. A major challenge will be the collection of smaller batteries and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) in general from which a significant share of total European cobalt demand could be recovered in the coming years.

Abstract: The control of degraded products, waste streams and secondary raw materials that can be produced from those must be in line with demand within the framework of an Advanced Circular Economy. Material requirements are developing dynamically depending on product development and consumer behavior. Accordingly, the recycling system must also behave dynamically and predictively and has to be transformed into stable, efficient but flexible process routes. This can also lead to a shift in the significance and sequence of the respective materials of main and secondary value in a process chain. This paper presents a novel approach for a smart and predictive circular economy. The approach consists of three major parts: An open information marketplace to meet information needs, suitable economic assessment and planning methods, and a dynamic optimization of the recycling process chain, e.g., selection of process steps and their sequence.

Abstract: Cascade use - a concept for increasing resource efficiency by multiple use of resources - gains in importance, in particular for bio-based materials. Allocation of environmental burdens and costs along the cascade chain plays a major role in deciding whether to establish a cascade or not. This highlights the need for a methodology for properly assessing different types of cascades. To provide guidance in terms of choice of allocation procedure available from life cycle assessment (LCA), Monte Carlo analysis is used. Especially hybrid, individually tailored allocation approaches can be evaluated in this way. The results show a high diversity of possible outcomes in terms of general allocation intensity (how much burden is shifted between steps of the cascade), rank reversals (exchange of positions inside the burden ranking) and variance of the overall results of the cascade allocation. Results are valuable for selecting an allocation procedure for cascade LCA and for further interpreting cascade models using specific allocation procedures.

Abstract: Since the first synthesis of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) as active cathode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in 1996, it has gained a considerable market share and further growth is expected. Main applications are the fast-growing sectors electromobility and to a lesser extend stationary energy storage. Despite increasing return flows, so far, little emphasis has been put on the recycling of LFP batteries due to the low content of high-value metals. In this study, current developments in the LFP battery market are presented. Furthermore, recycling processes for LIBs are reviewed and their applicability for LFP batteries is assessed. Currently, China is the main market for LFP batteries and rapidly increasing return flows are observed. In Europe and the USA, other battery chemistries are predominant. For LFP battery recycling, individually adaptable processes based on mechanical treatment of the cells followed by hydrometallurgical processing of the active cathode material seem to be the most promising approach. However, at present, these processes are only available at pilot scale, the profitability and their environmental performance are questionable. Therefore, further research addressing these challenges is urgently needed.

Abstract: In view of the increasing demand for lithium and the unequal distribution of lithium deposits worldwide, local deposits such as the zinnwaldite deposit at Zinnwald/Cínovec are increasingly coming into focus. It could be shown that especially the direct carbonation process with supercritical CO₂ represents a promising approach for a technical implementation due to the low chemical consumption as well as the high selectivity for lithium. Moreover, besides primary ore (zinnwaldite), the method is also suitable for recovering lithium carbonate from black mass, the lithium-containing fraction from lithium ion battery recycling.

Abstract: Lithium-ion batteries are crucial for non-emission technologies, like electric vehicles and renewable energy sources. The growing battery market causes supply risks for affected raw materials like cobalt, nickel, natural graphite and, in the future, lithium. On the other hand, the number of end-of-life Li-ion batteries grows significantly and provides an additional source for these critical materials via recycling. In electrohydraulic fragmentation (EHF), Li-ion battery cells are disintegrated at component interfaces, thus separating those components. Battery materials like cathode active material, graphite, electrode foils and housing parts can be extracted for producing new batteries or for further refining in hydrometallurgical processing. Compared to state-of-the-art pyrometallurgical recycling, the EHF is more energy and cost efficient due to the easy processing to a valuable battery material product.

Abstract: Since several years, the lithium market is characterized by high growth rates especially due to the increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries. Therefore, the primary production is currently expanded and there is a growing interest in recycling. However, because of the chemical properties of lithium, many production processes lack efficient processes for the separation, concentration and purification of lithium. This article reviews the current use of liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and chromatography in lithium production as well as research. Currently, the industrial application of LLE and chromatography in lithium purification is limited to the extraction of impurities and co-products. Extraction of lithium is only used as concentration step in few processes before lithium precipitation. In research and development, a wide variety of extractants and resins is investigated. In LLE, chelating extractants like crown ethers and calixarene and synergistic systems show the greatest potential. In the chromatographic separation the main focus of research lies upon cation exchange media, especially media with sulfonated ligands. However, most research is still in early development. Therefore, extensive research is needed to enable the industrial use of optimized LLE and chromatography processes in lithium production. Content TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u HYPERLINK \l "_Toc515547308" Abstract PAGEREF _Toc515547308 \h 2 HYPERLINK \l "_Toc515547309" Content PAGEREF _Toc515547309 \h 3

Abstract: Printed circuit boards are currently coated with Br-containing epoxy resins. With respect to recycling of the material removal of the halogen is important. Moreover, it appears important to test whether recycling of the coating is feasible. The resin from circuit board reference material was extracted with extraction media containing supercritical carbon dioxide. It is shown that ternary mixtures containing 2-propanol and water allow for the complete removal of the coating. In contrast to the original material the degraded coating is soluble in organic solvents and size-exclusion chromatograpy indicates the formation of very regular fragments.