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In one hand, strain rates less than 10-1 s-1 and temperatures less than 900 °C facilitate grain boundary sliding [3], [4].
This is especially pronounced for smaller β grain size.
The as-received microstructure of the material is beta-transformed, composed of 4 μm-α lamellae (Figure 2) in large equiaxed prior β grain having a milimetric size (Figure 1).
These paths are at the same time anisotherm, multiaxial, and composed of a large number of deformation steps possibly interspersed with holding times.
Korshunov et al., « Grain-structure refinement in titanium alloy under different loading schedules », J.

Table 2 Simulation conditions Software DEFORM-3D Ver. 11.0 Analytical method Lagrangian Split model 1/2 model Billet material AZ80 Billet size [mm] Φ7.0 × 35 Ram speed [mm/s] 0.1 Shear coefficient of friction m [-] 0.1, 0.2, …,1.0 Billet temperature [°C] 400 Heat transfer coefficient [Nmm/sec °C] 5 Action mode Hydraulic press Initial number of elements 100000 Ram stroke [mm] 0.1–4.5 V-groove depth [mm] 10 Corner radius R [mm] 1, 3 V-groove angle θ [°] 15, 30 Table 3 Experimental conditions Material AZ80 Temperature [°C] 400 Die material AISI H13 Punch speed [mm/s] 0.1 Lubrication condition No lubricant Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the V-groove friction test.
Streamlines were observed around the R portion of the die during forging, and the average grain size in that area was approximately 0.01 mm, confirming that dynamic recrystallization had refined the grain size.
By contrast, the average grain size in the low-strain area, such as at the tip of the V-groove, was approximately 0.1 mm, indicating coarse grains.

On the top of it another Ni layer was deposited until the desired number of multilayer periods was reached.
The grain diameter is found to be in the range 8-10 nm; it is comparable again to the multilayer period.
Therefore, the Ni grain size is limited by the thickness of the individual Ni layers even for thick multilayers.
In this sense, one would expect the grains of each Ni/NiO multilayer to be almost monodispersed.
Nanocrystalline grains of Ni are formed and their growth is stopped by the oxidation of the top atomic layers of Ni.

The surface area size of particular grains are differentiated (Fig. 1).
Fraction 10 - 15 and 15 - 20 mm2 contained 15 and 10 % of TiO2 grains, respectively.
Residual grains created clusters with a surface area of 20 - 40 mm2.
The mean surface area of TiO2 grain was measured and calculated to be 12 mm2.
Distribution of TiO2 grain surface area before incorporation into the electroplating bath.

NiAl phase is organized in small regions separated by grain boundaries.
Figure 3 : Number density profiles perpen-dicular to the z-direction.
Fig. 6 represents the local number of atoms ni in a slice i along z at t = 10 ns.
Figure 6 : Local number of atoms ni in a slice i along z at t = 10 ns.
The local number of atoms ni are indicated by diamonds, the local number of bcc atoms ni,bcc by squares and the local number of fcc atoms ni,fcc by bullets.

· Type II (micro/meso), residual stresses that vary on the scale of individual grains
· Type III (micro), within a single grain due to e.g. dislocations or other crystalline defects.
Strain gauges on the inner surface have numbers 1-2 and those on the outer surface are numbered 3-4.
The number of elements was 7.9 million in total and 480 000 metal elements.
This also means that the number of elements needed would be more or less unrealistic.

Since the number of fine voxels inside a coarse one is always integer and the value of porosity is not, there are a few coarse elements, having equal number of fine voxels inside them, that could not be set simultaneously neither to solids nor to pores.
Instead of the absolute number 22.4 um (the number above which the predictions would be wrong for C1) the following formulation should be used.
Slice solid fraction plots show the amount of solid fraction (number of solid voxels) in a 3D tomogram in each layer of voxels.
Dependence of Mechanical Strength of Brittle Polycrystalline Specimens on Porosity and Grain Size (1959) Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 42(8), pp. 376-387
Neutron diffraction study of the contribution of grain contacts to nonlinear stress-strain behavior (2004) Geophysical Research Letters, 31(6), pp. 1-4

Hardness changes due to strain hardening, induced residual stresses due to inhomogeneities of the elastic and resilient properties of material matrix, different phases as well as non-metallic inclusions and general microstructural changes with respect to grain orientation and size changes have been investigated [1].
A significant number of component failures are due to LCF damage, where the cyclically induced stress exceeds the yield strength and leads to irreversible plastic deformation of steel and nonferrous alloys [6].
The number of cycles to failure Nf = 267 under axial loading was reduced due to the superimposed torsion by a factor of 1.59 down to Nf = 167.
Furthermore, the number of cycles to failure Nf = 159 and Nf = 167 are comparable.
Höppel, Cyclic deformation and fatigue properties 435 of very fine-grained metals and alloys.

The exotic blocks in the scaly clay were varied, either in their grain size or genesis.
The grain size ranged from gravel to huge boulders.
According to this study, 5 contact springs (spring numbers 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6) are located on the west bank of the river, while the remaining 5 (spring numbers 7, 8, 9, 10 & 11) are located on the east bank.
Among the three springs classified as tubular or fractured springs (shown in Fig. 2), one spring (spring number 1) occurs in the cave of the limestone, while the other 2 (spring numbers 12 & 13) occur in the fractured igneous rock.
In comparison to the other springs, spring number one in the limestone cave has the lowest pH value.

The number of pulse (Np) irradiating the perovskite surface as well as laser fluence (F) were controlled by built­in pulse picker and the corresponding software.
(c) Wide­field multiphoton and (d) PL images of MAPbI3 film patterned with square­shaped flat­top laser beam at different fluences (F) and different number of applied pulses (Np) per spot.
PL decay measured from the areas processed at different pulse number per spot is shown in Fig. 2(e) revealing gradual decrease of the average relaxation time from 21 ns to 16 ns at increased (Np).
(e) Photoluminescence decay for a MAPbI3 film patterned with different number of applied square­shape flat­top laser pulses per spot Np.
More precise characterization of the grain structure of heated perovskite revealed formation of PbI2 layers even between MAPbI3 grains, which improved carrier transport characteristics. [10-12].