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., chemistry and physics) and/or life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) together with mathematics and economics to processes that convert raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.
This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties.
It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry.

It was shown that, under melt-quenching process, chromium was immobilized in amorphous structure in the slag with basicity lower than 1.0 and Cr2O3 content less than 4.0 wt%.
It is generally accepted that encapsulation of Cr (III) in MgCr2O4 spinel is by slow cooling [9,10], while immobilize Cr (VI) in an amorphous structure is by rapid cooling [11].
According to the reports[1, 6], in factory slag, basicity is always higher than 1.5, so, it is difficult to immobilize chromium in amorphous structure under fast cooling.
Takashi: Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research Vol. 52 (2013), p.3903 [12]H.
Popov: Glass Physics and Chemistry Vol. 36 (2010), p. 86 [17] H.

The several structures have been failed due to low flexural and compressive strength of OPC paste.
They also have appropriate structure for heavy metal binding [3–7].
The degrees of hydration, pore solution chemistry and heat release have been reported [8-11].
Pore solution chemistry provides software for the calculation of activity coefficients in high ionic strength; it enables to calculate of super saturations for relevant mineral phases.
Jennings, Solubility and structure of calcium silicate hydrate, Cem.

Therefore, defect chemistry may be used as a framework for their modification in order to achieve enhanced performance.
Functional Properties Band gap The ability of a semiconductor to absorb the light energy is closely related to its electronic structure.
It has been shown that electronic structure of oxides, including TiO2, is closely related to defect disorder [12].
Therefore, electronic structure may be modified by oxygen content as well as through doping with aliovalent ions.
Therefore, defect chemistry may be used as a framework for processing of photocatalysts with controlled properties, which are desired for specific applications.

A tetragonal distortion of octahedra in layer structure brings the opportunity to stabilize the Fe (IV) oxidation state.
For this purpose Mössbauer spectra have been investigated for oxide Gd2SrFe2O7 and solid solutions Gd2-хSr1+хFe2O7 obtained by traditional ceramic method and by soft chemistry route.
Characterization by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), has been performed for the determination of the structure and morphology of synthesized samples.
The iron atoms in the complex ferrite Gd2SrFe2O7 are found in one state - Fe+3, which is magnetically ordered, as shown by the fine structure in the spectra of these compounds (Fig.3).
Grande Phase equilibria in the pseudo–binary system SrO–Fe2O3 Journal of Solid State Chemistry 177 (2004) 2933–2942

The crystal structure of Bi-Sr-Co-O compound were analyzed by XRD and TEM.
In this paper, The effect of Ca doping on crystal structure of the misfit-layered Bi-Sr-Co-O system are studied.
A certain amount of Ca doping can improve the stability of the structure[5]. 3.2 TEM Analysis.
Conclusions The basic crystal structure of BC-2202,BC-2212,BC-2112 will not change while Ca doping.
[2] Y.Morita,J.Poulsen,et al.Oxygen nonstoichiometry and cobalt valence in misfit-layered cobalt oxides, J.Journal of Solid State Chemistry.177(2004) 3149 -3155

At the same time, because of the unique two-dimensional lamellar structure and abundant active sites on the surface, rGO can be used as an excellent substrate material to prepare composite absorbing materials with excellent electromagnetic wave absorbing performance.
Graphene is widely used to prepare substrate materials for composite absorbing materials because of its unique two-dimensional lamellar structure and the large number of active sites distributed on the surface.
During the reduction process, the ratio ID/ IG increases from 0.93 to 1.08, indicating that in the process of removing the oxygen-containing groups of GO, some lattice defects are generated in the aromatic ring c-c structure of graphene.
This is because a large number of oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of GO are removed during the hydrothermal reduction process, and the large π bond structure between graphene layers is re-established.
New Journal of Chemistry 41 1259-66 [10] Zhao B, Shao G, Fan B, Zhao W and Zhang R 2015 Investigation of the electromagnetic absorption properties of Ni@TiO2 and Ni@SiO2 composite microspheres with core-shell structure Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP 17 2531-9 [11] Wang K, Zhang S, Chu W, Li H, Chen Y, Chen B, Chen B and Liu H 2021 Tailoring conductive network nanostructures of ZIF-derived cobalt-decorated N-doped graphene/carbon nanotubes for microwave absorption applications Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 591 463-73

Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 207(February), 110875 (2023)
Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 111059
Optical and physical properties of bismuth borate glasses related to structure.
Physics and chemistry of glasses, 39(2), 83-86
Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 166, 108496

The copper powder ECP-1 having a layer-free structure (State standard 4960-75) was exposed to gamma radiation.
All samples were received to have a very brittle structure and they crumbled under the slightest impact on them.
Korchagin // Chemistry in the interests of stable development. – 2002. – Vol. 10. – № 1-2. – P. 219–225
Influence of Mechanical Activation on Microstructure and Crystal Structure of Sintered MgO-TiO2 System / S.
Subachev, S.М.Zadvorkin, I.А.Kuznetzov, Е.А.Tueva, А.V.Dolmatov // Fizika i Khimiya obrabotki materialov (Physics and Chemistry Of Material Treatment). – 2011. – № 5. – P. 56–62

This suggested tubular structure of CNT gradually collapsed and gathered up into a lamellar structure after once sintering, as shown in figure. 2.
When adjusted for time after time sintering, the structure of CNT becomes stabilization, graphite (002) diffraction peak has no change compared to before sintering, tubular structure with no apparent collapse, CNT mainly together grain boundaries, even a small amount of CNT grew in AlN grain and formed intragranular structure.
CNT tubular structure was destroyed into sheet structure after once sintering, the thermal conductivity decreases rapidly, carbon atoms are diffused into the AlN lattice inside and formed larger defects.
Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 48(1987):641~647
Szmidt, Dielectric properties of nanocrystalline AlN with respect to its crystal chemistry, J.