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The shunt resistance is due to cell or material defects and manufacturing defects.
Hashim, Climate Change Challenges on CO2 Emission Reduction for Developing Countries: A Case for Malaysia’s Agenda for Action, The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, Volume 2, 2011
,InTech,30/11/2012 http://www.intechopen.com/books/trends-in-telecommunicationstechnologies/ [5] Tarak Salmi, Mounir Bouzguenda, Adel Gastli, Ahmed Masmoudi, MATLAB/Simulink Based Modelling of Solar Photovoltaic Cell, International Journal of Renewable Energy Research, No.2, 2012 [6] Huan-Liang Tsai, Ci-Siang Tu, and Yi-Jie Su, Development of Generalized Photovoltaic Model Using MATLAB/SIMULINK, Proceedings of the World ongress on Engineering and Computer Science 2008, WCECS 2008, October 22 - 24, 2008, San Francisco, USA [7] Pandiarajan.
N, Ranganath Muthu, Development of Power Electronic Circuit-Oriented Model of Photovoltaic Module, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology, E-ISSN 0976-3945, 2011 [8] M.
Yatim, Modelling and Simulation Based Approach of Photovoltaic System in Simulink Model, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences VOL. 7, NO. 5, MAY 2012, ISSN 1819-6608

The performance of energy systems is reduced with time due to the degradation of materials.
Photovoltaic systems undergo alterations of their electrical parts and of their stacked materials [3].
Iyuke, Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of Supercapacitors, Nanomaterials in Advanced Batteries and Supercapacitors, Nanostructure Science and Technology, pp. 515-562
Hwang, (2010), Oxidized low density polyethylene: A potential cost-effective, stable, and recyclable polymeric encapsulant for photovoltaic modules, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, 94, pp. 955–959
Master of Science Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, 2009

Experimental Materials.
Vargas, et al., Magnetism of nanosized metallic Co-clusters, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. 226 (2001) 603-605
Guan, et al., Preparation of nanometer cobalt particles by polyol reduction process and their magnetic characterizations, Journal of functional materials. 36 (2005) 1122-1125
Cao, et al., Synthesis and characterization of cobalt nanoparticles, Rare Metal Materials and Engineering. 36 (2007) 760-762
Kou, et al., Structure and magnetic properties of cobalt nanoplatelets, Materials Letters. 58 (2004) 2506-2509

The optical and electronic properties of perovskite materials have been studied intensively [7, 8].
Experimental Materials synthesis The synthesis of Au NPs doped TiO2 Nanoparticles has got with a method as follows: A citrate reduction method was employed for synthesizing Au NPs.
Advanced Functional Materials 2007, 17, 347-354
Materials Science (Medziagotyra) 2014, vol. 20, No.1
Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 2014, 75, 775-781.

Therefore, an alternative utilization of fly ash is required for the production of the building materials.
Moreover, the use of fly ash for building materials and other advanced materials will allow for sustainable utilization of this resource.
The use of fly ash in the cement-treated road base effectively disposes of a large amount of waste material safely, saves use of new resources, reduces materials cost and produces better quality materials than a cement-treated road base [14].
Raw materials used for the experiments were soil, cement, and fly ash.
Any further increase in fly ash content leads to non-compliant materials.

For Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, P.R.China 2 Materials Department, Second Northwest Institute for National Minorities, Yinchuan, P.R.
The UHCS was considered not only as tool steels but also as good structure materials.
Fracture and fatigue properties are important for structure materials.
Wadsworth: "Ancient blacksmiths, the Iron Age, Damascus steels, and modern metallurgy", Journal of Materials Processing Technology Vol. 117 No. 3 (2001), p. 347 [2] O.D.
Sherby: High strain rate torsional behavior of an ultrahigh carbon steel (1.8 pct C-1.6 pct Al) at elevated temperature Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A: Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, Vol. 28A No. 9 (1997), p. 1913 [7] D.W Kum: Effect of Al-addition on the microstructural refinement of ultra-high carbon steels: Proceedings of the TMS Fall Meeting, Thermomechanical Processing and Mechanical Properties of Hypereutectoid Steels and Cast Irons (1997), p. 41 [8] Zhu Jiewu, Xu Yan and Liu Yongning: Lath Martensite in 1.4%C Ultra-High Carbon Steel and Its Grain Size Effect, Materials Science and Engineering A, accepted and in press

Finite Element Analysis of Instability Related Delamination Growth Journal of Composite Materials, 15 (September 1981), 403-426 [3] Chai, H. & Babcock, C.
Journal of Composite Materials 19(1) ( January 1985), 2-18, [6] Whitcomb J.D.
Journal of Composite Materials 23(9) (September 1989), 862-889 [7] Whitcomb J.D., Shivakumar K.N.
Strain-Energy Release Rate Analysis of plates with postbuckled delaminations, Journal of Composite Materials, 23(7) (1989), 714-734 [8] Whitcomb J.D.
Journal of Composite Materials. 26(10) (October 1992), 1523-1535

Experimental Raw materials and Mixing Ratio Raw Materials.Cement: the 42.5-grade Portland cement produced by certain plant in Changsha.
Table 1 The chemical constituents of cement Materials Chemical constituents /% CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe3O4 TiO2 MgO SO3 Na2O MnO Ignition loss Cement 64.57 20.50 5.62 3.66 0.57 2.15 1.75 1.02 - 0.97 Ceramsite: mixed ceramsite made by a lightweight ceramic factory in Hunan.
This is because the pores of light aggregate can absorb water which facilitates to balance the humidity between aggregate and cementitious materials.
Gjorv: ACI Materials Journal.Vol.9-10(1999),p.99
(In Chinese) [10] Hongwei Song and Yongmin Cao: Journal of Concrete (2003) No.1:20-24

If the capillary pore of cementious materials is fully filled with sea water, the maximum amount of chloride content in concrete can be calculated, as given in Eq. (7).
cap Cl TotalQC φ⋅=max (7) in which, Cmax: maximum surface chloride content, capφ : capillary porosity of cementious materials (see Fig. 3).
This approach is theoretically based on the ingredient and amount of seawater, and microstructural characteristics of cementious materials.
White, "Corrosion Initiation Time of Steel Reinforcement in a Chloride Environment - A One Dimensional Solution, " Corrosion Science, Vol.39, No.4, pp.739-759, 1997
Bazant, "Physical Model for Steel Corrosion in Concrete Sea Structure - Application," Journal of Structure, Div., ASCE, No.105, Vol.6, pp.1137-1153, 1979

Thirdly, they only study about the effects on surface temperature due to the properties of pavement materials (like albedo).
Material properties.
Material properties are shown in Table 1.
[5] Daochuan Zhou and Haitang Zhu: Journal of Functional Materials.
Constantinos: CIGR Journal.