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The TiN thin films have been prepared by a number of techniques [5–7] including DC magnetron sputtering, RF magnetron sputtering, Ion Beam-assisted Deposition, Chemical Vapor Deposition, CVD or Cathodic arc evaporation.
The individual nodules shape with small grains located at sputtering power of 200 W.
A densified structure with much finer grain size was found as the magnetron sputtering power of 130 W (Fig. 5a).
At sputtering power of 200 W, the grain aggregation appeared across the surface (Fig. 5b).
The increase of grain size was forming triangle shape with void characteristics between grain boundaries as investigated in Fig. 5c.

The following parameters of acoustic emission were analyzed: AE counts N (N is the number of times the acoustic emission signal exceeds a preset threshold) and the number of pulses vs.
a b c Fig. 2 Characteristic time dependences of AE counts (red) and AE count rate (blue) for basalts with different structures: a - coarse, b - medium-grained, c – fine-grained.
Clearly, differently grained materials exhibit different AE patterns.
a b Fig. 3 Frequency characteristics of coarse-grained (a) and fine-grained (b) basalts.
Subjected to uniaxial compression followed by destruction, the coarse-grained basalt specimen (Fig. 3a) exhibits AE activity that is several times greater than that of the fine-grained basalt (Fig. 3b).

After inspected and judged a highway segment with 9 crack diseases, the statistical data of 9 causes of disease formation were obtained including thinner design depth of top-layer, different batches of cement, coarse aggregate in larger maximum grain size over code specification, concrete mixture with higher temperature, insufficient compaction degree of basement layer, seepage of drain pipe, vehicle overload, higher ground water level and un-uniformly packing of road foundation.
(1) Where,∣Wj∣is the factor number in each subset Wj of systematization U/D, j=1, 2, 3;∣SC(Wj)∣is the factor number in support subset of condition attribute set C with respect to Wj;∣S(C-{xi})(Wj)∣is the factor number in support subset of condition attribute set C-{xi} with respect to Wj;∣SC(D)∣is the factor number in support subset of condition attribute set C with respect to D;∣S(C-{xi})(D)∣is the factor number in support subset of condition attribute set C-{xi} with respect to D;∣U∣is the factor number of domain od discourse U.
Table 2 Significance of each attribute to crack disease Item Different batches of cement Coarse aggregate in larger maximum grain size than code specification Insufficient compaction degree of basement layer Seepage of drain pipe Vehicle overload Light crack 1/9 1/9 0 2/9 1/9 Medium crack 0 0 0 1/9 0 Serious crack 1/9 0 0 0 0 All cracks 2/9 1/9 0 1/3 1/9 Based on statistical data of the 9 crack diseases, the affecting degree of above five factors can be judged as follows: For light cracks, the main cause of formation is the seepage of drain pipe resulting in uneven sedimentation of road foundation, secondly is the different batches of cement or coarse aggregate in lager maximum grain size over code specification resulting in the strength reduction of pavement concrete.
For all crack diseases, the causes according to their significances leading pavement in cracks are seepage of drain pipe, different batches of cement, coarse aggregate in larger maximum grain size over code specification and vehicle overload.

Buildings residues are a large number of residues caused by building demolition and strengthening and shaping of recycled aggregates[2,3,4].
Because the residues is mainly composed of hardened cement paste, debris of coarse aggregate and fine aggregates, un-hydrated cement and fine-grained soil.
In addition, a large number of the piled up alkaline buildings residues will basify the soil around them.If the fine-grained particles in the dry residues float in the air, they will become the carriers or reactors of other pollutants to lower the visibility of air and will cause serious damage to the environment of cities.
The two ratio respectively numbered as: 1# for100% building residue +8%cement;2# for100% building residue +8% cement+0.8% soli difying agentQ2 brand; the same proportion blocks after being 24h soaked in water are respectively numbered as1# soaked in water，2# soaked in water.
From the two pictures, it is seen that a large number of micron-sized to nearly nano-sized homogeneous small spherules dispersal in substrate.

(2) The solution of Y(NO3)3 was made that Y2O3 (Content is 5% mole number of ZrO2) was added into the solution of HNO3.
The amounts of the grains under 10μm are about 95%, below 1μm are about 20%.
The grains grow oversize when the temperature rising, it cause the particle size become lager.
The grain geometry and mean grain size of the composite powders prepared by the both methods were analyzed comparatively.
The grain will grow too big when the calcination temperature is too high.

In addition to providing the macroscopic stress-strain response, they account for hardening and reorientation of individual grains.
The orientations represent grains and the weights represent volume fractions.
Each grain is treated as an ellipsoidal visco-plastic inclusion embedded in an effective visco-plastic medium.
The slip activity predicted by the VPSC code shows a decrease of the number of slip systems as effn increases.
The secant formulation predicts a higher number of active slip systems (such as in Taylor).

In order to reduce the machining cost the methods that allow net-shape or near net-shape forming of complex shaped parts in a single step or in a restricted number of steps have especially been pursued.
In silicon nitride based ceramics the superplastic deformation occurs mainly via grain sliding along grain-boundaries[2,3].
The glassy phase binds together crystalline grains of the matrix, and when it becomes soft, it acts as a lubricant that allows sliding along grain boundaries under a deformation stress.
Controlled grain growth Separating grain growth from densification.
Rapid grain growth via dynamic ripening.

Intra grain areas have a higher lifetime which changes with the contamination levels.
This permits to study the incorporation and impact of impurities when present together with grain boundaries.
NAA provides the total number of the elements present, regardless of their electrical activity.
Intra grain areas have a higher lifetime, which changes with the contamination levels.
Acknowledgements This work is part of the FP6 CrystalClear project and funded by the European Commission under Contract number SES6-CT_2003-502583.

Moreover, one of the aims of grain refinement is to enhance plasticity; the main difficulty is to preserve a small grain size at the forming temperature, which is generally around the half of the melting temperature.
The starting grain size was about 85 µm.
In addition, newly created sub-grains separated by dislocation walls are remarked (Fig. 1b).
Weak beam images show dislocations at the boundaries as well as inside the “grains”.
In this purpose, we have used the formula: r= 2NG/Lt (1) where N is the number of dislocations intercepting a straight line of length L, G is the magnification and t is the foil thickness.

The elongated grains can clearly be observed from the OIM orientation map.
Smaller grains can be found along the elongated grains (Fig.3a), the grain boundary orientations of the small grains are less than 15° (Fig.3b).
However, more equiaxed grains can be observed for the samples deformed at high temperature, with clearer grain orientations and larger angle grain boundaries.
The elongated grains disappear completely at the strain rate of 10 s-1, and are replaced by equiaxed recrystallized grains.
A larger number of the dislocation tangles are along the grain boundary and finally evolves to the cell structures, a precursor to recrystallization.