Compressive Strength Analysis of Bricks with Mussels (Mytilus Edulis), Mollusk (Bivalvia), and Paper Waste

Abstract:

The increasing volume of solid waste and the environmental impacts of cement production have prompted the exploration of sustainable alternatives in construction materials. This study investigates the feasibility of incorporating paper and pulverized shell wastes as additives in cement-based, non-load-bearing brick production. Specifically, the research evaluates the effects of varying shell-to-cement replacement levels (5%, 10%, and 15%) while main-taining a constant 1:1:3 ratio of cement, sand, and paper pulp. A total of 27 brick specimens were fabricated, with three samples per mixture design tested at curing periods of 14, 21, and 28 days. Compressive strength testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM C90 standards. Statistical analysis, including two-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD post hoc test, was employed to determine significant differences among mixture proportions and curing du-rations. Results indicate that curing time and shell percentage significantly influenced compressive strength. The highest average compressive strength of 1,993 psi was achieved at 28 days with 10% pulverized shell replacement. This value approaches the minimum requirement for load-bearing masonry units, indicating borderline load-bearing performance. Furthermore, cost analysis revealed that bricks incorporating paper and shell wastes demonstrated notable cost savings compared to conventional cement bricks. Overall, the findings suggest that the integration of paper and shell wastes in brick production presents a viable and cost-effective approach to reducing cement consumption while promoting waste valorization and sustainable construction practices.

• Periodical: Advances in Science and Technology (Volume 180)
• Pages: 145-151
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-4kOL0t
• Online since: July 2026
• Authors: Don Luigi R. Alesna, John Ray S. Apale, Nicole G. Espiritu, Lisa S. Guieb, Michael G. Calamba, Marites B. Tabanao*
• Keywords: Cement Pollution, Compressive Strength, Paper Pulp, Paper Waste Utilization, Pulverization, SDG 9, Shell Waste Utilization

References

[1] Demissew Gashahun, A.: Production of Sustainable Concrete by Using Challenging Environmentally Friendly Materials Instead of Cement. Presented at the May 4 (2022).

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.99239

[2] Elehinafe, F.B. et al.: Cement industry – Associated emissions, environmental issues and measures for the control of the emissions. Mech. Eng. for Soc. and Ind. 2, 1, 17–25 (2022).

DOI: 10.31603/mesi.5622

[3] Grădinaru, C.M. et al.: Sustainable Development of Human Society in Terms of Natural Depleting Resources Preservation Using Natural Renewable Raw Materials in a Novel Ecological Material Production. Sustainability. 12, 7, 2651 (2020).

DOI: 10.3390/su12072651

[4] Jović, M. et al.: Recent trends in application of shell waste from mariculture. Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research). (2019).

[5] Maceachern, N.: The Environmental Impact of Paper Waste Recycling: A Comparative Study. Open Collections. (2009).

[6] Syed Masood, J. et al.: Understanding Various Cement Compositions and Its Application. ces. 1, 1, 9–14 (2022).

DOI: 10.46632/ces/1/1/2

[7] Li, W., Qian, C., Li, Q., Wang, K., Zheng, C., Zhang, Y.: Effect of n-C-S-H on hydration and reinforcement of mineral powder-cement system at low temperatures. Nanomaterials 14, 524 (2024)

DOI: 10.3390/nano14060524

[8] Wang, Y., Bao, Y., Meng, W.: Lightweight calcium-silicate-hydrate nacre with high strength and high toughness. ACS Nano 18, 23655–23671 (2024)

DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c08200

[9] Sim, K., Youn, H.J.: Preparation of porous sheets with high mechanical strength by the addition of cellulose nanofibrils. Cellulose 23, 1383–1392 (2016)

DOI: 10.1007/s10570-016-0865-6

[10] Kuo, C.-C., Qiu, S.-X.: A simple method of reducing coolant leakage for direct metal printed injection mold with conformal cooling channels using general process parameters and heat treatment. Materials 14, 7258 (2021)

DOI: 10.3390/ma14237258

[11] Malhotra, H.L.: The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of concrete. Mag. Concr. Res. 8, 85–94 (1956)

[12] Nduka, D.O., Akanbi, E.T., Ojo, D.O., Babayemi, T.E., Jolayemi, K.J.: Investigation of the mechanical and microstructural properties of masonry mortar made with seashell particles. Materials 16(6), 2471 (2023)

DOI: 10.3390/ma16062471

[13] Soltanzadeh, F., Emam-Jomeh, M., Edalat-Behbahani, A., Soltan-Zadeh, Z.: Development and characterization of blended cements containing seashell powder. Constr. Build. Mater. 161, 292–304 (2018)

DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.111

[14] Moussa, T., Maalouf, C., Bliard, C., et al.: Spent coffee grounds as building material for non-load-bearing structures. Materials 15, 1689 (2022)

DOI: 10.3390/ma15051689

[15] Barnabas, A.A., Balogun, O.A., Akinwande, A.A., Ogbodo, J.F., Ademati, A.O., Dongo, E.I., Romanovski, V.: Reuse of walnut shell waste in the development of fired ceramic bricks. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 11823–11837 (2022)

DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22955-4