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The growth orientation of grains also changed with the number of spin-coating cycles.
With the increase of spin-coating number, the proportion of Se atoms decreases, resulting in a transition to a sulfur-rich state and thereby causing a shift towards an increased diffraction angle [16,17], and also promoting the growth of Sb2S3 grains.
As the number of spin coating increased to three and four, the grains in the film grew, yet the surface morphology deteriorated.
The grain size of the thin film gradually grew.
Acik, Analysis of grain orientation and defects in Sb2Se3 solar cells fabricated by close-spaced sublimation.

This method enables the production of ultrafine grained (UFG) materials with grain sizes ranging from ~100 to 1000 nm in bulk.
An average grain size of UFG copper analyzed by TEM was 300 nm.
After a large numbers of stress repetitions in excess of 8×105 at sa = 90 MPa and 2.8×105 at sa = 120 MPa, damaged areas with slip band-like traces were crated at the hole-edges.
This area was composed of slip band-like damaged traces that increased their length and number with further cyclic stressing.
At sa = 240 MPa, on the other hand, the crack paths had numbers of long SBs/shear-cracks extended nearly parallel to the crack paths.

The effects of grain-refined by Pr on the morphology and the grain size of the primary α-Al in semisolid A356 alloy are researched.
Semisolid A356 alloy grain-refined by Al-La master alloy is prepared by low superheat pouring, and the size and morphology of the primary grain in semisolid A356 alloy are markedly improved by La[9].
Most grains are rosette-like or particle-like, and there are few grains with dendritic-like microstructure.
The grain size of the primary phase is coarer without Pr, about 110μm.
There are strip-like or needle-like bright areas at grain boundaries, which should be the enriching area of Pr theoretically, because the atomic number of Pr is the largest among the elements (such as Al, Si, Mg, Pr) contained in the alloy used in this test.

During the growth of crystal, crystal grain size is related to nucleation ratio of crystal during crystallization and formation speed of crystal grain.
In which, n stands for the number of diffraction peaks; I0 (vhkl) and I (vhkl) respectively stand for relative intensity of X-ray diffraction crystal face (hkl) of standard Ni powder and electroforming deposit sample.
In comparison between X-ray diffraction graphic spectrum and 87-0712 PDF card, the crystal face serial number corresponding to the maximum X-ray diffraction intensity are face (111), face (200) and face (220) respectively.
In accordance with Hall-Petch principle of common poly-crystal metal material sub-grain strengthening theory, performance of material is closely related to grain size and densification degree, its comprehensive mechanical property and grain size normally comply with the Hall-Petch relationship: ——proof stress of material ——lattice friction in case of single dislocation caused by movement —— constant d ——crystal grain size Microhardness HV Figure 7 A micro-hardness comparison diagram of two groups of test The comprehensive mechanical property of material is inversely proportional to the extraction of grain size d.
The smaller the grain size of material, the higher its strength, the higher the toughness and plasticity.

Fig. 4 shows the change in the number of precipitates, the size of the precipitates and martensite lath width with increasing aging time.
Variation in the size of the precipitates, the number of precipitates and the martensite lath width with aging time.
Phys., 87 (2000) p. 805 The grain boundaries act as obstacles to the movement of the domain wall.
The domain wall energy is influenced by the atomic structure of the grain boundaries [9].
Therefore, in the case where the grain size is large, the grain boundary area and domain wall energy will be lower.

Moreover, the grain size distribution is homogeneous, and there is a large amount of low angle grain boundaries (95.6%).
Low angle grain boundaries existed in lamellar structure account for most of the grain boundary, just as the grain boundaries map shown.
The number fraction of 30o-40o<111> boundaries is in fact quite low, and only 10% (length fraction) of these boundaries are found between the cube regions and their immediate surroundings.
Heavier the blue color of grain is, lesser deviation to the ideal cube orientation the grain is.
The color key is the same as in Fig. 1 Fig. 4 (a) Crystal orientation map depicting the spatial distribution of cube grains (heavier the blue color of grain is, lesser deviation to the ideal cube orientation the grain is.) and (b) Distribution of the area fraction of cubic grains vs. tolerance angle.

Good penetration of copper along the grain boundaries of the 60% porosity sintered ceramics was analysed in the whole volume of composite.
Linear dependence of the amount of loss material on the number of electrical discharge analytical cycles for Cu/ZrB2 composite was determined.
The dependence of overall loss of weight with the number of electrical discharge analytical cycles was determined.
Any contact angle decreases were due to volume shrinking connected to the geometry of voids and grain boundary energetics.
However, the presence of open porosity in the sintered ceramics gave the opportunity to show good penetration of molten copper along the grain boundaries [1].

During the operation of the automaton, in each step the cells need to have a status obtained from a determined, finte number set of states.
The excess energy arising from the fact, that the atoms situated inside the grains have less energy than the ones situated at the grain boundaries, is called boundary energy.
By taking stereological principles [9] into consideration, besides the transformed proportion, the change of the average grain size and the distribution of the grain size can also be determined.
If the number of cells is divided by the total number of cells than the value of the Avrami exponent (n) is maximum 2, while if this operation is carried out with the second power of the cells the result is n = 3, respectively by raising to the third power and carrying out the division the value of the Avrami exponent is n = 4.
The calculated grain size distribution.

After ultra fast reheating with average reheating rates of 1000°C/s and higher a significant grain refinement was observed with an average ferrite grain size of ~1µm.
The obtained final ferrite grain size depends significantly on both the reheating temperature and the reheating rate.
However, the number of studies concerning the recrystallization and transformation behaviour in the conditions of fast reheating of cold rolled steel sheets with heating rates higher than 100°C/s is limited [5,6].
The grain size of ~1 µm is obtained in ultrafast reheated samples in the temperature interval 760-930°C but the question for grain growth in isothermal conditions after ultrafast reheating still remains to be investigated.
“Grain Refinement of a Cold Rolled TRIP Assisted Steel after Ultra Short Annealing” In proc of Rex&GG- IV Sheffield 2010, in print.

After FEG–SEM observations, these overestimates are mainly due to additional intergranular cavitation along grain boundaries.
It is expressed in term of the number of cavities per unit grain boundary area and per unit time and given by: N0=α'εmin with α'=Naεfin , Na=dgNmπdH (2) For various stress and temperature values, the parameter α' is determined using the image processing software of FEG-SEM micrographs which allows us to measure the area fraction of creep void and the cavity size distributions.
Ten FEG-SEM images (about 250 observed grains) with magnification X500 were analyzed to determine the number of cavities per unit area of polished section, Nm.
The number of cavities per unit grain boundary area, Na, was then deduced using Eq. 2. with dg the average diameter of austenitic grains and dH the harmonic mean of intersected cavity diameter.
The upper and lower bounds of the time to failure can thus be predicted by: 0.301 h(α)kbTΩDbδ∑n2/5ωf0.5164N03/5≤ tf≤0.354 h(α)kbTΩDbδ∑n2/5ωf2/5N03/5 (3) with Ω the atomic volume (1.21·10-29m3 [6]), h(α) the factor which depends on angle formed at the junction of a void and the grain boundary (0.697 [6]), Dbδ the self-diffusion coefficient along grain boundaries times the grain boundary thickness δ (Db°δ = 7.7·10-14m3s-1 and Qb=159kJ/mol [6]) and ωf the critical area fraction of cavities in grain boundaries (0.04 [7]).