Paper Titles
Features of the Formation of the Structure of Welded Joints of Structural Steels during Underwater Welding with Filler Wire 12X18N9T Using External Electromagnetic Influence
p.33
Axial Fatigue of PBF-LB Ti6Al4V: Process and Surface Effects
p.43
Fatigue Resistance of PBF-Lb IN625-RAM2 Alloy
p.51
Sustainable Roller Burnishing: Effects on Surface Roughness and Power Consumption in Additively Manufactured AlSi10Mg Alloy
p.59
Characterization of the Interface between WAAM-Deposited Carbon Steel and S355 Structural Steel Plate
p.67
Effects of Ball Milling Time on CoCrFeNiTi High Entropy Sintered Alloys
p.75
Fracture Surface Morphology and Roughness of Ti-Scaffold Filaments
p.83
Metal Dusting Failure in an Aniline Processing Plant
p.91
Fractography and Microstructural Analysis of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Beta-Annealed Ti6Al4V Alloy after Fatigue Test
p.99

Characterization of the Interface between WAAM-Deposited Carbon Steel and S355 Structural Steel Plate

Article Preview

Abstract:

This study investigates the microstructural and mechanical integrity of the interface between Wire Arc Additive Manufactured (WAAM) carbon steel (CS) and an S355 structural steel (Wrought CS) plate, with emphasis on the suitability of WAAM for repair and reinforcement of structural components. A wall structure was deposited on a Wrought CS plate using a Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) process and subsequently characterized through microstructural analysis, hardness measurements, tensile testing, and bending fatigue testing. The microstructural observations revealed a smooth and defect-free transition across the interface, consisting of a fine-grained heat-affected zone (HAZ) formed by partial recrystallization. The hardness profile exhibited a continuous gradient, with slightly elevated values near the interface (~210 HV), indicating grain refinement and the absence of softening effects. The tensile results showed that the WAAM-deposited CS possessed higher strength and ductility than the Wrought CS, while the hybrid WAAM CS–Wrought CS specimens displayed intermediate properties. Fracture consistently occurred within the Wrought CS plate rather than at the interface, confirming a metallurgically sound and mechanically robust bond. Under bending fatigue loading, the WAAM CS demonstrated the highest fatigue limit (~250 MPa), followed by the hybrid (~205 MPa) and Wrought CS (~162 MPa). All hybrid specimens fractured on the Wrought CS side, indicating that the interface remained intact under cyclic stress.

You might also be interested in these eBooks
Metallurgy and Processing, Fatigue, Fractography and Failure Analysis View Preview

Info:

Periodical:

Key Engineering Materials (Volume 1043)

Pages:

67-74

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4028/p-R8fpME

Citation:

Cite this paper

Online since:

February 2026

Authors:

Mikko Hietala*, Timo Rautio, Matias Jaskari, Markku Keskitalo, Joonas Päkkilä, Antti Järvenpää

Keywords:

Additive Manufacturing, Carbon Steel, Direct Energy Deposition, Fatigue Resistance, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Export:

RIS, BibTeX

Price:

Permissions CCC:

Request Permissions

Permissions PLS:

Request Permissions

Сopyright:

© 2026 Trans Tech Publications Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Share:

Citation:

* - Corresponding Author

References

[1] M. Belhadj, S. Werda, R. Kromer, P. Darnis, Influence of operating parameters on the mechanical and geometric properties of 316L stainless steel structures fabricated by WAAM-CMT, Procedia CIRP 133 (2025) 585–590.

DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2025.02.100

Google Scholar

[2] N. Chernovol, B. Lauwers, P. Van Rymenant, Development of low-cost production process for prototype components based on Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), Procedia CIRP 95 (2020) 60–65.

DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2020.01.188

Google Scholar

[3] T. Tankova, D. Andrade, R. Branco, C. Zhu, D. Rodrigues, L. Simões da Silva, Characterization of robotized CMT-WAAM carbon steel, J. Constr. Steel Res. 199 (2022) 107624.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcsr.2022.107624

Google Scholar

[4] J. Nakrani, N.K. Mishra, V. Ajay, W. Yan, A. Shrivastava, Viability of WAAM for fabrication/repair of SS316: Fatigue crack growth behavior for varied notch locations in the vicinity of WAAM–substrate interface, Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 133A (2024) 104527.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tafmec.2024.104527

Google Scholar

[5] J. Yang, M.A. Wadee, L. Gardner, Strengthening of hot-rolled S355 steel I-section beams using WAAM high-strength steel, Thin-Walled Struct. 215A (2025) 113437.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tws.2025.113437

Google Scholar

[6] A. Spinasa, B. Weber, X. Meng, R. Zhang, M. Nitawaki, L. Gardner, Influence of process parameters on the physical and material properties of WAAM steels, Constr. Build. Mater. 479 (2025) 141078.

DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141078

Google Scholar

[7] J. Nakrani, N.K. Mishra, V. Ajay, W. Yan, A. Shrivastava, Viability of WAAM for fabrication/repair of SS316: Fatigue crack growth behavior for varied notch locations in the vicinity of WAAM–substrate interface, Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 133A (2024) 104527.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tafmec.2024.104527

Google Scholar

[8] J. Nakrani, A. Shrivastava, W. Yan, Effect of a deposit–substrate interface on fatigue crack propagation in WAAM-deposited SS316L: XFEM modeling with orthotropic material properties, Int. J. Solids Struct. 322 (2025) 113616.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2025.113616

Google Scholar

[9] A. Yadav, M. Srivastava, P.K. Jain, Design and fabrication of wire arc additive manufacturing setup and enhanced tailored properties of dissimilar steel additively deposited by WAAM process, Structures 72 (2025) 108228.

DOI: 10.1016/j.istruc.2025.108228

Google Scholar

[10] M. Klimova, K. Nasonovskiy, I. Astakhov, A. Fedoseeva, R. Korsmik, D. Mukin, S. Zherebtsov, N. Stepanov, Microstructure and mechanical properties of low-carbon steel produced by WAAM with high deposition rate, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 947 (2025) 149185.

DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2025.149185

Google Scholar

[11] B. Zheng, J. Yang, Y. Zhang, S. Zhang, G. Shu, Study on monotonic and cyclic properties of WAAM low-carbon steel thick plate, Structures 67 (2024) 106964.

DOI: 10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106964

Google Scholar

[12] B.P. Nagasai, S. Malarvizhi, V. Balasubramanian, Effect of welding processes on mechanical and metallurgical characteristics of carbon steel cylindrical components made by wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) technique, CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 36 (2022) 100–116.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.11.005

Google Scholar

[13] M. Mendez-Morales, J.S. Jesus, R. Branco, T. Tankova, C. Rebelo, Fatigue crack growth of untreated and heat-treated WAAM ER70S-6 carbon steel, Int. J. Fatigue 198 (2025) 109008.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2025.109008

Google Scholar

[14] J. He, M. Cao, X. Li, X. Wang, X. Wang, X. Guan, In-situ SEM investigation of fatigue crack propagation through cross-weld area in WAAM low-carbon steel and the role of microstructures in propagation behavior, Int. J. Fatigue 193 (2025) 108765.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2024.108765

Google Scholar

[15] B. Zheng, J. Yang, Y. Zhang, S. Zhang, G. Shu, Study on monotonic and cyclic properties of WAAM low-carbon steel thick plate, Structures 67 (2024) 106964.

DOI: 10.1016/j.istruc.2024.106964

Google Scholar

[16] J. Yang, M.A. Wadee, L. Gardner, Strengthening of hot-rolled S355 steel I-section beams using WAAM high-strength steel, Thin-Walled Struct. 215A (2025) 113437.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tws.2025.113437

Google Scholar

[17] A.R. Catalano, P.C. Priarone, L. Settineri, An economic evaluation of hybrid WAAM–subtractive manufacturing in relation to deposition process parameters, Procedia CIRP 122 (2024) 49–54.

DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2024.02.003

Google Scholar