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Since the number of charges in a cluster is much smaller than the number of atoms, a cluster ion beam can transport thousands of times larger numbers of atoms at the same ion current compared with a monomer ion beam.
The initial Cu surface (Fig.5(a)) had many grains that were 400 nm in width and 15 nm in height, and the average roughness was 6.0 nm.
After Ar ion bombardment (Fig.5(b)), there were still many grains on the surface and small hillocks caused by the energetic ion bombardment were observed.
In monomer ion sputtering, it has been reported that the anisotropy of the sputtering yield depends on the presence of facets or grain boundaries.
From Fig.5(c), no grains were observed on the surface and there seemed to be little dependence of the sputtering yield with cluster ions on grain boundaries or facets.

A new model of the abrasive particle, representing the spherical granule of the R radius, on which abrasive grains bulge out of the bundle as disjoint truncated cones is developed.
The random quantities, obeying some distribution are: height of the bulging of the abrasive grains η, dull radius a and angle γ of the cones, density of the distribution ξ of the grains upon the surface of the granule [7].
The surface of the detail is continuously subjected to the dynamical influence of the abrasive grains during the processing.
max 0 h 0.09 Z уст ед Ra l = ⋅ , (6) where едl - a unit length; 0Z - a nominal amount of the peaks of grains above the unit square of the bundle's surface.
This allowed to execute the ranking of the technological factors, select the principal of them, that one which have the essential influence, define that some factors are to be to assigned by one value, and other by an array of numbers for forming a manifold of the design decisions.

The “discontinuous” shearing here refers to the fact that shear strain gets accumulated (shearing occurs in steps) as the number of passes increases.
The map shows a prior grain boundary that contains different shades within indicative of dislocation structures.
-Z Y Figure 4: IPF map of the stir zone in NiAl bronze showing very fine grains.
The corresponding pole figure shows a combination of weak shear texture and randomly oriented grains.
The microstructure is made up of very fine grains and the pole figures show the presence of a weak shear texture along with random components.

It is demonstrated both experimentally [2, 3], and theoretically [4, 5] that a number of FEs including BaTiO3 exhibits an enhanced piezoelectric strain when poled along a nonpolar axis.
Polycrystal is an aggregate of variously oriented crystallites or grains.
Keeping in mind the goal of getting the maximum piezoelectric efficiency from polycrystalline material, the present objective is to maximize the piezoelectric coefficients dijk by the optimum choice of grain distribution.
The grain distribution parameters chosen by the SA algorithm will prompt a normal random generator thereby create a set of Euler angles (φ, θ, ψ).
In summary, a stochastic optimization is developed to identify the best grain configuration which will output a piezoelectric polycrystal wherein the piezoelectricity is maximum compared to the other possible configurations.

The stored energy and grain bundary mobility after the grain deformation can be changed with the finish rolling temperature, those affect the recrystallization nucleation rate and grain growth velocity and the average grain size of deformed austenite result in temperature phase change.
When the deformation finishing in austenite recryatallization region, the phase transition temperature rise cuse of temperature compensated strain rate factor Z increases and the average grain size of austenite deformation become smaller and its growth tends to be small witch is in favor of the ferrite nucleation and shorten the incubation period with decreasing finish rolling temperature.
When the deformation finishing in austenite non recrystallization region and the austenite is rolled into a flat shape, in which is become that more nucleation site provided to form a new phase with grain boundary area increasing in unit area, meanwhile a large number of deformation zone formed in austenite grain interiors provides a place for the new nucleation.

As the oxygen partial pressure increasing, the film particles agglomeration reduced, the grain sizes decreased, the specific surface area increased, as a result, the sensitivity increased[12].
WO3 films were composed of nano-sized grains.
The average grain size is about 50 nm.
The grain boundary was clean, but some particles reunited.
On the other hand, with the diffusion of surface atoms , the faster growing crystal surface could consumed slower growing crystal faces, resulting in the increased grain size, the surface roughness was also further increased; and the grains in the surface of the substrate will be touched and combinate as diffusion and migration, which reached to that the grain aggregation and agglomeration.

Sover, which indicate the opposite (minima ψ and number of twists at 600 ̊C) (Figure 2, cur. 8). 10 years (1957) before the term TRIP-effect (transformation induced plasticity) appeared (1967), A.G.
On the temperature dependence of Lorentz number S.
Microstructure of pure iron after quenching above 1050 ̊C (water) and tempering (2 h) at 600 ̊C (a), 640 ̊C (b), 680 ̊C (c), ×100 The increase of grain boundary etching is associated with "both relative enrichment and relative depletion of grain boundary zones by some elements" [33].
Grain refinement is clearly recorded both in optical (Figure 4 a, b, c) and electron microscope (Figure 4 d, e, f, g, h, i).
In addition to grain refinement, isothermal aging at 640 ̊C results in sharply different etchability (in 4 % HNO3 in alcohol) of different adjacent grains (Figure 5 a, b, c) as opposed to aging at other temperatures.

Another, the surface structures of LiMn2O4 grains are of great importance to the electrochemical performance of batteries [11].
The morphology of Li1.02Co0.1Mn1.9O4-xSx grains is analogous to that of Li1.02Mn2O4 with well developed octahedral equiaxed grains.
The surface of the grain is clear and smooth, the distribution of grain sizes is uniform, and the average grain size is about 200-500nm.
Fig. 11.Discharge capacity vs. number of cycles of Li1.02Mn2O4, doped Li1.02Co0.1Mn1.9O3.98S0.02, coated Li1.02Co0.1Mn1.9O3.98S0.02 at 0.5C rate; (a) room temperature (25ºC), (b) elevated temperature (55 ºC).
The surface of 2.0 wt.% SiO2-coated Li1.02Co0.1Mn1.9O3.98S0.02 grains remained clear crystal edges and smooth surface.

The average columnar diameter of MSi2 grains is about several micrometers.
Measured crack density (number of cracks per unit length in the direction parallel to the interface) in these MSi2-SiC nanocomposite coatings is greatly reduced.
The average size of equiaxed MSi2 grains and SiC particles is about several tens ~ hundreds nanometer.
The nanosize SiC particles located mostly at the grain boundaries of MSi2 inhibit the grain growth of MSi2 matrix.
The growth of MSi2 grains is also inhibited by the nanosize Si3N4 particles located mostly at the grain boundaries of MSi2.

This paradigm shift triggered improvements in a number of technology areas.
Optimization was carried out around high volume production rather than around a minimum-cost system for making limited numbers of a given panel.
However, the increased cost can be amortized over a larger number of panels due to the increase in system productivity.
Currently, the number of facilities that have the bulge testing capability is limited, making qualification of new suppliers difficult.
The larger number of panels allows increased cost to be incurred by the tooling, thus enabling coatings or surface treatments to be used.