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Melting enthalpy is no longer a constant but a number decrease with diameter decreasing.
The Curie temperatures of iron in different particle sizes show no difference because Curie temperature is one of the intrinsic magnetic parameters related to chemical composition and crystal structure but not to the grain size.
(3) Melting enthalpy is no longer a constant but a number decrease with diameter decreasing.

Two clinical relevant dental ceramics were selected as model materials for studying bottom-surface radial cracking: a dense fine-grain alumina (CoorsTek, Golden, CO), and an yttria-stabilized zirconia (Y-TZP, Norton, East Granby, CT).
The numbers of cycles n required to initiate each crack type were recorded [3].
Fig. 2 shows side views of cone crack evolution in a soda-lime glass monolith specimen as a function of number of cycles n.
The critical loads required to initiate inner cones at any given load diminish steadily with increasing number of cycles.
Number of cycles, n 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 Critical load, P (N) 101 102 103 104 Y-TZP alumina Figure 4.

On the other hand, the number of end-of-life Li-ion batteries grows significantly and provides an additional source for these critical materials by recycling.
Due to the limited number of recovered materials and high energy input, the overall recycling efficiency is low.
The electric discharge in the reactor medium causes a shockwave penetrating the sample’s weakest points which are the mechanical bonds between materials and grain boundaries (fig. 1).

However, a vast number of resources involving networks, computing, and storage resulted in ever increasing energy consumption.
The users in networked manufacturing submit service requests to Manufacturing IT Cloud, and then the services will be decomposed into fine-grained tasks.
Manufacturing User 1 Manufacturing User n Manufacturing User 2 Task 1 decomposition Task 2 decomposition Task n decomposition Service request Service request Service request Task Coordinator Resource demand evaluation Virtual resource scheduling VM state VM controller VM pool Physical manufacturing IT resource VM monitor Task queue Manufacturing IT Cloud Fig. 2 Dynamically-scalable resource utilization mechanism for networked manufacturing Summary Although networked manufacturing technology is efficient for integration of distributed manufacturing resources, a number of IT resources for manufacturing resulted in ever increasing energy consumption.

Additional studies on other titanium alloys illustrate the effect of α grain size, α-β colony width and lamellae thickness, prior-β grain size the volume fraction and morphology of primary α, transformed β and aged martensite on mechanical properties [37, 95, 99, 100, 107, 109, 110].
The α/β recrystallisation temperature and time helps to adjust the primary α volume fraction and size together with determining the β grain size.
In general PM material consists of a finer grain size compared with those found in material produced by ingot metallurgy.
However, there are only a limited number of studies which illustrate the effect of microstructure on the fracture toughness of PM produced Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
KIC = 44~66 (MPa.m1/2) KIC = 88~110 (MPa.m1/2) KIC = 32 (MPa.m1/2) Fig. 6: Typical fracture toughness for different microstructures [37] Hamai and Sugiura investigated the effect of β –grain size on the mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V and according to their study it is clear that an increase in grain size increases fracture toughness [119].

After reaching a certain scale thickness (or, conversely, a certain number of thermal cycles), weight loss occurs due to partial scale spallation.
Titanium tends to oxidize within the subsurface region of the alloy, particularly at grain boundaries.
When present in a small but sufficient amount, the RE tend to segregate to the alloy/scale interface and scale grain boundaries, and have the apparent effect of suppressing cation diffusion in the scale.
The mass-change behavior of the alloys as a function of number of thermal cycles is shown in Fig. 7.
The mass-change behavior of 800 series alloys from two different suppliers as a function of number of 1-day cycles at 1000 °C in air.

During FSW process, the material undergoes intense plastic deformation at elevated temperature, resulting in generation of fine and equiaxed recrystallized grains.
The Laser-Beam Welding (LBW) process can ensure the most concentrated heat input for the welding of aluminium alloys and has a number of advantages such as: (i) high precision, (ii) a high quality welded joint, and (iii) minimal distortions.
Figure 2 shows that there are three regions, namely, the parent metal with grains elongated through rolling, the weld bead with small grains, and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) consisting of grains elongated in the direction of the temperature gradient.
Subsequent to their work, the method was improved and the application extended to various metallic substrates such as metal parts of a complex shape, to single grains of polycrystalline material and even to single crystals [21].
Figure 10 shows that in laminated AA 2139, the main corrosion form is pitting that follows grain profile in the lamination direction.

This is a result of vanadium producing both grain refinement, including formation of intra-granular ferrite, and precipitation strengthening.
Moreover, aluminium forms a nitride phase, which can promote grain refinement.
The profile, which is typical for ductile fracture: small dimples (0.5-1 µm), is a result of the fine ferrite grain structure and inter-granular ductile fracture.
The average ferrite grain size, as determined using an IAS-4 image analyzer, was ASTM 10.
Scheme of diagram plotting (a, b) and diagram of cyclic straining of steel 17Mn2NV (c); figures near curves are numbers of semi-cycles.

KFM has been used to study the work function differences between different facets of crystal orientation on single grains, to characterize the grain boundary structures within polycrystalline absorber materials, and to study the cross-section of the junction region through a complete solar cell device.
Plan-view is perfect where a large area of layered structures is to be studied, for example where the grain size of upper layer is to be studied [25].
Grain-orientation (by electron backscattering diffraction, EBSD) and defect density (by, electron beam induced current, EBIC maps) were studied with an SEM microscope [25, 28].
In case of polycrystalline-Si thin film, electrical activity of both the intragrain defects as well as the grain boundaries is investigated with electron beam induced current (EBIC) measurements [43].
Though a number of techniques from nanoscale to macroscale are currently serving in labs and industries, further understanding of the facts between the underlying materials characteristics and device performance is unavoidable and still lacking.

Also increase in grain boundaries, can arrest propagation of defects, when material is stressed, thus giving it strength.
If grain size becomes small, the interface area within material greatly increases, which enhances its strength.
Due to grain boundary scattering, electrical conductivity of nanocrystalline materials is found to be lower, than that in the coarse grain material of same chemical composition, because the larger fraction of atoms lies at grain boundaries.
In solids, N is very large, resulting in a large number of orbitals [40].
Hahn, Phase characterization and stabilization due to grain size effects of nanostructured Y2O3, Nanostruct.