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On the ZnO’s plane {110} and {100}, their direction is parallel to the c axis, and the number of zinc atoms and oxygen atoms is same, that is to say they are non-polarity. {110} plane is a-plane, {100} plane is m-plane. a-plane and m-plane non-polar ZnO haven’t spontaneous polarization along the growth direction.
Spacing between zinc and oxygen atoms is dZn-O=1.94 Å, The coordination number is 4:4.
Due to the influence of preparation conditions, there always be some defects such as point defects [3], dislocations [4], grain boundaries [5], surface configuration [6] and interface configuration [7] in ZnO thin films.
But the resistivity of the film always greater than it in the bulk material under the same condition of carrier concentration, this is because there are some scattered bodies such as surface scattering and grain boundary scattering in the film body.
The Grain-boundary-related Optical and Electrical Properties in Polycrystallinep-type ZnO Films [J].

Recent work [11] also demonstrated that the number of d + s electrons/atom exerts significant effects on the P-N barrier energy and the fracture toughness of Nb-Ti-Cr the solid solution alloys.
Ti Content, At. % 0 10 20 30 40 50 Fracture Toughness, MPa/m 0 20 40 60 80 25°C Nb-Ti-Cr Solid Solution Alloys In-Situ Composites (Nb,Ti)Cr2 Experimental Data Model Calculation Laves Phase Solid Solution Alloy Number of d + s Electrons/Atom in Alloys 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 Fracture Toughness, MPa/ m 1 10 100 25°C Nb-Ti-Cr Solid Solution Alloys In-Situ Composites Cr2Nb Experimental Data Model Calculation Solid Solution Alloy In-Situ Composites Intermetallics.
The linkage of the main crack and microcracks, which dictates the observed fracture toughness, often occurs without plastic stretching of the Nbss particles, as observed in Grains A and B in Figure 10 [5].
The absence of ductile-phase toughening in the Nb-based in-situ composites appears to originate from the phase morphology in the composite microstructure and the consequence of a relatively continuous silicide phase in the microstructure such that the crack path resided in the silicide and Laves phases, as seen near Grain B in Figure 10.
Fracture paths in cast and heat-heated Nb-based (Nb-Ti-Hf-Si-Ge-Cr) in-situ composite with high volume percents (>50%) of silicide and Laves phases are primarily within the silicide (grey) and Laves (dark) phases with little ductile-phase blunting or stretching in the Nb solid solution (light) phase (Grains A and B).

Because of the potential adverse impact on the surrounding environment and human health, a number of studies on clogging of LCSs have been conducted, but more is to consider the single factor.
Typical LCS design [11] Clog material composition A number of studies have been performed to investigate clog material composition of landfill LCSs (Table 1).
Brune [2] reported the results from the column tests on granular material with different grain size distributions (2-4 mm, 2-8 mm, 1-32 mm, 8-16 mm, 16-32 mm).
The numerical model analysis also showed that for the same drainage material, the rate of clogging in leachate collection systems is increased with an increase in the grain size of the drainage material [34-35].
Rowe, Effect of grain size on service life of MSW landfill drainage systems, Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 50 (2012) 1-14

The sandstone grains were aged in brine for 5 days to induce spontaneous imbibition before being aged in crude oil for another 5 days.
A stirring heater with an rpm of 40 was used to gently agitate the mixture, ensuring that the solution was constantly in touch with the grains and mimicking flow from the injection well to the production.
The much-reduced transmittance intensity for BaTiO3-MnO-infused sandstone suggests a significantly greater absorbance, indicating a strong intermolecular interaction between the BaTiO3-MnO nanoparticles and the sandstone grains' surface ligands.
The higher the number of particles increases the interactions between particles, leading to increased resistance to fluid.
Mahani, "Pore-scale simulation of the interplay between wettability, capillary number, and salt dispersion on the efficiency of oil mobilization by low-salinity waterflooding," vol. 26, no. 06, pp. 4000-4021, 2021

This situation attributed to the increasing number of nucleation sites available for the growth of graphite nodules as observed by P.
In addition, the graphite nodule number of the inoculated samples increased as inoculant wt % increased, compliant with the notion that inoculation promotes the formation of graphite during eutectic solidification.
The microstructure also reveals segregation elements distributed along the grain boundary and Secondary Arm Spacing (DAS), indicating the presence of different alloy phases as shown in Fig. 5.
Increasing inoculation wt. % led to a decrease in the amount of carbide phase at grain boundaries resulted in higher mechanical properties.
Thus, the carbide accumulated at the edge of alloyed grain becomes lesser.

., the 4b site of the Cu2MnAl structure) and is not found at grain boundaries, etc.
As a result, the number of electrons in the conduction band increases, and overall, |S(T)| decreases.
The present series is characterised by an overwhelming contribution of the lattice, λph, to λ(T), while the electronic part, λe, (dashed lines at the bottom of Fig. 4, right panel) represents only a few percent of the total measured quantity as it is derived employing the Wiedemann Franz law using the standard value of the Lorenz number, L0 = 2.44 · 10−8 WΩK−2.
The phonon contribution to the thermal conductivity results from least squares fits employing Callaway's model, which assumes a Debye-like phononic spectrum and takes into account several scattering processes of the phonons, like on point defects, grain boundaries and charge carriers, as well as Umklapp processes.
The grain size, which can be derived from the Callaway model varies between 8 and 25 µm and does not show a regular concentration dependence.

There was also a dramatic increase in the number of base stations in China, as shown in Fig. 1b [5].
Statistical data of the number of (a) the annual car sales in China and the world [4], (b) the built base stations over the past six years [5].
If the grain density is not sufficiently high, the resulting structure will be conventional coarse dendrites, which is unbecoming for SSP [18].
Flemings, Grain refinement of an aluminum alloy by introducing gas bubbles during solidification, Scripta Materialia 55(2) (2006) 115-118
Fragner, The effect of chemical grain refinement and low superheat pouring on the structure of NRC castings of aluminium alloy Al–7Si–0.4Mg, Materials Science and Engineering: A 420(1–2) (2006) 135-143

This contrasts the morphology of the steel at 6M H2SO4 which showed the presence of deep and enlarged, corrosion pits, and a badly etched surface showing the grain boundary coupled with a severely degraded exterior.
Invariably the number and depth of corrosion pits increases.
Enlarge corrosion pits coupled with appearance of grain boundaries on the steel show SO42- anions at 6M H2SO4 are detrimental to the sustainability of the steel as accelerated progresses on the steel’s exterior.

The internal friction makes it possible to evaluate the tendency of a material to elastic lags, creep and grain boundary relaxation.
An examination of these micrographs shows that ferrite grains are of irregular shape and their size varies from 1.23 µm to 7.65 µm.
The permeability was calculated by using the relation [69]: L = 0.0046N2mih log10 (D1/D2), (13) where L is the inductance in μH, h is the height of the toroid, D1 and D2 are the outer and inner diameters and N is the number of turns (30–35 in this case) wound on the toroid.
Microstructural studies with the help of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed uniform grain structure.
Ke, Experimental Evidence of the Viscous Behavior of Grain Boundaries in Metals, Phys.

Early in sixties it was recognized also that inelastic strain energy might be used to characterize the energy dissipated in material in a load cycle as a measure of current damage and the total energy absorbed by the onset of material failure which was assumed a material structure constant, regardless the intensity of cyclic loading and number of cycles to failure, criterion for fatigue failure [6, 7], etc.
The range of endurances of the design S-N curves is limited from the left side by the number of cycles prior to failure equal to, which approximately corresponds to the stress amplitude (nominal!)
Relating the current number of load reversal, n, to the number of cycles by the material failure, N, the non-dimensional definition of the load cycle number can be applied, n/N = d.
Given the critical value of inelastic strain energy related to failure of material, criterion of failure, , the number of load reversals (two times the number of cycles), fatigue life, N, can be found taking also into account for the energy dissipation in a material element attributed to effects of fabrication procedures: (5) In the case of irregular loading the energy dissipated in every load excursion can be estimated following the service loading succession (recorded or simulated).
The energy absorption results in the early formation of roughness (intrusions and extrusions) on the free surface, in the accumulation of bundles of dislocations at inclusions and grain boundaries, and in the development of sub-microscopic cracks in the grains with favorably oriented slip-planes.