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For all these particles, the loss of energy in materials induces damage.
The temperature of the materials during irradiation also plays a major role in the final distribution of defects or the microstructure of irradiated materials, allowing migration, recombination or clustering if sufficiently high.
Irradiation Induced Damage in Materials: Irradiation of materials can be carried out in very different conditions, with various particles, neutrons, ions, electrons, at various energy, flux, fluence and temperature.
The role of irradiation on the corrosion resistance of materials is indeed a complex and not fully understood area, although it is of crucial importance to material science and nuclear engineering, particularly with regard to nuclear reactor safety.
Was, Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science: Metals and Alloys, Springer US, Berlin, 2007

In engineering practice some researchers like Jacob Bear calculated the height of capillary rise of phreatic water using Hazen formula[5], while Wessolek G.(2011) raised an equation-HPTF (hydro-pedo transfer functions) to estimate the quantity of capillary rise reaching plant root-zone within a year[6], Lu N(2004) Studied the capillary rise rate[7].
Other scholars studied the close relationships of human engineering activities such as capillary water and surface flow, rainfall, irrigation pumping, excavation of foundation pit, slope remake[9,10,11].
Physical property of test materials. (1) In engineering, an indicator called granularity composition is commonly used to describe soil particle according to relative content of different size particles.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 130(6): 646-650.(2004) [8] Lehmann P., Stauffer F., and Hinz C.Effect of hysteresis on water flow in a sand column with a fluctuating capillary fringe.
Subgrade Engineering, 6: 137-141.(2008) [15] Gao Jiangping, Wu Jiahui and Yang Rongshang.

In the past, several dose-response functions for individual materials have been proposed using results based on different exposure programs [22].
Saternus, Development of Bath Chemical Composition for Batch Hot-Dip Galvanizing—A Review, Materials, 13 (2020) 4168
Marshakov, Prediction of First-Year Corrosion Losses of Carbon Steel and Zinc in Continental Regions, Materials 10 (2017) 422
Fontana, Corrosion Engineering, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd, 2018
Kobus, UN/ECE ICP Materials Dose-response Functions for the Multi-pollutant Situation, Water Air Soil Pollut: Focus, 7 (2007) 249–258

Renewable Energy for Sustainable Socio-economic Development in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Sub-Saharan Africa Mukhtar Bello Department of Chemical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Decentralised renewable energy projects have potentials to be cost-competitive in remote and large rural areas and could therefore play a key role in enhancing rural energy access in Sub-Saharan Africa.
For example, in December 2012, an engineer (French national) working with VERGNET Company on Katsina wind power project in Nigeria was kidnapped, which has brought the project to a temporary stand still.
The author is also grateful for all the reference materials used in this chapter.
Diana, Poverty and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview of Key Issues, Working paper 299, Overseas Development Institute, London (2009)

Research on Spatial and Temporal Distribution Of Primary Energy in China GENG Wei1,2, ZHANG Beibei1,2, BU Meidong3, MU Kangguo3, PANG Changle1,2, HU Lin1,2,3* 1.National Energy R&D Center for Biomass, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China 2.Key Laboratory of Clean Production and Utilization of Renewable Energy, Ministry of Agriculture, P.R.
Publishing House, Beijing, 1997) (In Chinese) [2] BP Group: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010 (Beacon Press, UK, 2011) [3] Yiming Wei, Ying Fan: China energy report (2006), Strategy and Policy Research (Science Press, Beijing, 2006) (In Chinese) [4] Huan Niu, Han Hu, Guoqing Wu: China Science and Technology Review (2009), p.249 (In Chinese) [5] National Bureau of Transportation Statistics Division Industry: China Energy Statistical Yearbook 2010 (China Statistics Press, Beijing, 2011) (In Chinese) [6] Xinhua Ma, Jian Jun Chen, Junwei Tang: Natural gas geoscience, Vol. 14 (2003), p.15-20 (In Chinese) [7] National Bureau of Statistics:2010 Sixth National Population Census Main Data Bulletin (No. 2) (National Bureau of Statistics, Beijing, 2011) (In Chinese) [8] Dou Shi, Junwei Zheng: Natural Gas Geoscience, Vol.14 (2003), p.148-156 (In Chinese) [9] Wei Zhang, Yankui Zhu, Guolei Wang: science & technology information (2011), p.51 (In Chinese) [10] Deyu Zhi: Society of Automotive Engineers
of China Automotive Materials Branch of the 17th Annual Meeting, Liaoning (2010), p.1-7 (In Chinese) [11] Minying Yang: China's energy, Vol. 29 (2007), p.2-26 (In Chinese) [12] Nengxiao Xuan: international petroleum economics, Vol. 279 (2004), p.4-8 (In Chinese) [13] Fengyun Chen, Zhihuang Xia: Territory & Natural Resources Study, Vol. 2 (2003), p.73-74 (In Chinese) [14] Lei Zhang: Acta geographica sinica, Vol. 58 (2003), p.629-637 (In Chinese) [15] National Development and Reform Commission. long-term development plan for renewable energy, Beijing (2008) (In Chinese)

The experiments carried out in the study and the subsequent analyses performed on the data rely on an engineering approach and are associated with quantitative measurements.
The issues of measurement in terms of engineering are based on a scientific discipline called metrology [10].
[2] Research & Development, Innovation, and the Science and Engineering Workforce, National Science Board 2012
Mijal, Bibliometrics in Management of Engineering and Scientific Research, Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Warsaw, 2012
Sulerz, Engineering Audit in the Process of Enterprise Innovation Research, in: Innovations in Management and Production Engineering, Polish Society of Production Management Publishing House, Opole, 2013, pp. 66-77.

Hydrothermal Oxidation of Industrial Alkali Lignin for Producing Small Molecular Organic Acids Guangyi Zhanga, Juwei Zhangb, Jian Yuc, Yin Wangd National key laboratory of multi-phase complex system, Institute of Processing Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China agyzhang@home.ipe.ac.cn, bjwzhang@home.ipe.ac.cn, cyujian@home.ipe.ac.cn, dwangyin@home.ipe.ac.cn Keywords: Hydrothermal oxidation; Industrial alkali lignin; Small molecular organic acid; Formic acid; Acetic acid Abstract.
The samples of industrial alkali lignin made by spray-drying black liquor from alkaline pulping of wheat straw were provided from Shanghai Jinshan New Building Material Co., Ltd.
Fig. 1 Illustration of a reactor and the procedure for batch hydrothermal reaction experiments The material and samples were analysed by HPLC, GC-MS, IR, elemental analyser and ICP-OES.
Considering brown and light brown liquid products with oxygen supplies of 100% at a lower temperature (i. e. 270 oC), liquid products took on dark brown when oxygen supplies were lower than 100% at 300 oC, which probably meant that the materials had not been oxidized enough and there stockpiled quantities of immediate brown products such as the quinines (reaction pathways discussed hereinafter).
The amides were probably produced from oxidation of the extractives of nuclear materials or/and proteins in cell wall of the plants used for pulping, and the cyclopentenones from hemicelluloses and fine celluloses dissolved during alkaline pulping; the aldehydes and acetones were usually the pyrolytic/hydrolytic products of lignin and its immediate oxidized products.

Bulk Au material appears distinct yellow color due to their special electronic structures.
Experimental Section Material: Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB, 99%) was purchased from Nanjing Robiot Co.
The molar ratio of PVP/AgNO3 was a key factor in determining the final morphology of Ag nanocrystals, and ratios between 1 and 3 were optimal for Ag nanoplates formation.
Zhu, et.al, “Manipulation of gold nanoparticles inside transparent materials”, Angew.
Li, Recent progress in engineering and application of surface plasmon resonance in metal nanostructures.

Harmer 1,b 1 Lehigh University, Center for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, 5 East Packer Avenue, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA, 18015 a sjd6@lehigh.edu, bmph2@lehigh.edu Keywords: Grain growth, Grain boundary, Alumina, Ceramics, Diffusion.
For example, it may be exploited to enhance toughness [1-2] or grow single crystals [3-4], or suppressed to enhance densification [5] or produce high strength materials.
The nucleation of a step on a flat interface is often considered to be the key factor for interface controlled grain growth.[8-10] When grain growth is nucleation limited interface controlled, the driving force does not vary linearly with curvature or grain size.
A psudeo-single phase system is one in which there is a small fraction of grain boundaries that contain an intergranular film that is not continuous throughout the material.
Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the NSF Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (NSF DMR-0079996) and the PA Department of Community and Economic Development (Contract C000007361) for their generous support.

The higher amount of cobalt-containing improves high-temperature performance of the material, the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
Taguchi method is a powerful engineering analysis and design method, this method through the design of orthogonal test significantly reduce test times, minimized to reduce the impact of uncontrollable factors on the test results, thereby providing a simple and effective selection of the optimum cutting process parameters, greatly reducing the manufacturing costs and cutting time [9,10].
Schematic of high-speed milling experiments Workpiece Material.
The workpiece material used in the experiment was ASSAB PM60 SuperClean from ASSAB Tooling (Dongguan) Co.
Acknowledgements This research was funded by a grant from the Key Program of NSFC-Guangdong Joint Fund, China (Grant no.