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Thermomechanical Modelling and Shape Prediction in 4D Printing Using FEA

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Abstract:

In today’s competitive manufacturing landscape, balancing cost and performance is crucial. Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers a path to efficient, functional designs, with Four-Dimensional (4D) printing emerging as a key innovation. By using materials that are responsive to external stimuli, 4D printing enables objects to change shape over time, making them active and opening new possibilities in adaptive design. Building on this, research into the shape morphing behaviour of 4D-printed objects was conducted through simulation. Based on the literature, this process can be effectively approached as a thermomechanical problem. This work first simulates the shape morphing of two-layer structures. Multiple parameters are varied through Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to assess both their independent influence and the feasibility of the proposed method. The study then analysed the use of orthotropic properties to evaluate control over deformation directions. Finally, insights from these phases were applied to more complex geometries. It is concluded that the morphing process can be computationally planned using a thermomechanical approximation, paving the way for the incorporation of the influence of printing parameters, pattern design and the strategic division into active/passive regions. This study provides foundational work in 4D printing regarding the shape prediction of printed objects.

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Info:

Periodical:

Key Engineering Materials (Volume 1047)

Pages:

287-297

Online since:

April 2026

Authors:

Tiago Andrade, Mylene Cadete, João Dias-de-Oliveira*

Keywords:

4D Printing, Finite Element Analysis, Fuse Deposition Modeling (FDM), Numerical Modelling, Shape Morphing, Shape Prediction

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Permissions:

Creative Commons CC BY 4.0

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* - Corresponding Author

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