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The secondary ion relative yield dependence for solid solutions revealed that the number of dissolved-substance secondary ions is proportional to its concentration.
In order to determine the self-diffusion parameters for grain-boundary diffusion, a Whipple [7] and Fisher [8] model was applied.
Table 1: Coefficients of bulk and grain boundary self-diffusion a bilayer 56Fe/ 57 Fe system.
Values for the grain-boundary self-diffusion coefficients of iron, that were obtained under the condition, δ = 0.5 nm, are also listed in Table 1.
This phenomenon is related to grain-boundary saturation by a diffusant.

In compare with ternary system, the quaternary system has a number of advantages as follows: (1) It is easier to sinter and less evaporation loss of PbO. (2) The dimensionality of the morphotropic region increases with the number of components in the system, and the number of compositions with optimal properties thus increases. (3) By adding new component, which form solid solution with those in the original system, can alter its properties over a wide range and obtain more varied properties. (4) Increasing the number of component in a system raises its effectiveness.
The mean grain size was calculated by the line intercept method [7].
It may be explained by the sintering model of Coble [14] that small grain size will promote the densification and grain boundary offer a sink of defect or vacancy in sintering leading to the increase of the density.
The DSR means the regions of the tetragonal phase are in the pseudocubic grains and the regions of the pseudocubic are in tetragonal grains.
It was found that Kp depends on the material parameters such as grain size, porosity, and chemical composition.

Moreover, small additions of zirconium are often made to high strength wrought aluminium alloys for the purpose of controlling grain structure and inhibiting recrystallization[2], because the Al3Zr dispersoids are resistant to dissolution and coarsening and can control the evolution of the grain and subgrain structure during subsequent processing operations, such as hot rolling and solution heat treatment.
The effectiveness of the dispersoids will depend on their number density, size, spacing and distribution.
One can find that the number density of precipitates decreases with the increase of the strain rate and the decrease of the deformation time.
The number density of the precipitates is relatively high after deformation with strain rate of 0.001s-1(for 20 minutes).
The number density of the precipitates is relatively high in sample after deformation with strain rate of 0.001s-1(for 20 minutes).

The film’s thickness was controlled by adjusting the laser energy and pulse number.
Table 1（112）Peak intensity ratio of different heating treatment samples Heat treatment temperature /˚C 400 450 500 550 575 (112) peak intensity ratio /% 79.24 97.75 86.21 64.06 83.54 In general, the grain size D can be calculated by the Scherrer formula [11] Where k is a proportional constant (usually 0.89), B is the FWHM, λ is the X-ray wavelength (0.15406nm), θ is Bragg angle, and the peak width of the instrument is 0.12° (0.002 rad).
The average grain size results of CIGS films at different heat treatment temperatures were listed in Table2.
It can be seen, with the heat treatment temperature growing, the grain size increases gradually.
Table 2 Average grain size of the CIGS films Heat treatment temperature /˚C 400 450 500 550 575 Average grain size /nm 12.16 89.70 113.86 122.56 132.52 Optical band gap analysis.

The difference between the substrate and the diamond layer in their physical and chemical character causes a number of technological problems such as poor adhesion and deformations.
In experiments with long lasting nucleation cycle (25 min) the size of the generated diamond grains was very inhomogeneous due to secondary nucleation on the surfaces of the grains.
The inhomogeneity of grain size did not help the formation of a compact layer.
The layer grown at low temperature (650°C) contained diamond grains embedded into amorphous carbon (Fig. 2a).
SEM images a) the overall view of the selectively deposited structure, b) some diamond grains deposited on the SiO2 part, c) compact diamond layer deposited on the Si part The silicon has been removed by selective etching technique from beneath the diamond layer The created self-supporting diamond bridge is shown in Fig. 7.

In the inland river, lake as well as sea, a large number of dredging sediments also can be produced every year.
Grain size distribution analysis: Take 500.0 g natural dry sand soil, and put in the screen on the vibration sieve machine, with vibration in 10-12 min, respectively measure the quality of sand soil under different screen size.
Grain size distribution The figure 1 shows that the grains size less than 0.075 mm accounted for 1.29% of the total mass is less than 10% in sand soil.
Grains of sand soil is mainly distributed in the range of 0.3-0.15 mm with content of about 75.8%.
Test with different ratio of cement Number of sample Cement Sandy soil Water Water reducing agent 1 25% 1 16.7% 0.2% 2 27.5% 1 16.7% 0.2% 3 30% 1 16.7% 0.2% 4 32.5% 1 16.7% 0.2% 5 35% 1 16.7% 0.2% First mix cement and soil, using forced mortar mixer which is shown in figure 3.

Clay under study is a medium-sized raw material with a content of particles with grain size of 10 μm and less of 70.96%.
The content of particles with grain size of less than 1 μm is 44.16%.
Clay is medium-plasticity material with a plasticity number of 11.
The one part of the clay was ground to a grain size of less than 3 mm as well as the other part was less than 0.5 mm.
The lower strength of samples made from coarse clay is associated with the formation of a large number of shrinkage microcracks in the sample itself and around large quartz grains.

Rugged grain boundaries due to the complex dendritic structure are apparent.
The average grain size, found using the linear intercept method, was 1.3 mm.
Inconel 738LC used in the present study is characterized by the coarse grain size - see Fig. 1.
Thus, only several grains are present in the volume of a specimen corresponding to the gauge length.
Figure 5 shows the plastic strain amplitude εap at half life vs. the number of cycles to fracture Nf in the bilogarithmic representation.

The grain boundary precipitates for T79 and T77 states were similar, which had a more intermittent distribution than that for T6 state.
The larger cycle number is, the more obvious difference of crack length of the alloy with different aging states are.
(a) crack length versus cycle number (a-N) curve, (b) fatigue crack growth rate versus stress intensity factor range (da/dN-ΔK) curve.
For grain boundary precipitates, the T6 alloy possesses a discontinuous distribution and the precipitate size is small.
(a,b,c) matrix precipitates and (d,e,f) grain boundary precipitates.

This has significantly limited the number of studies devoted to the quantitative characterization of dislocation patterns.
Due to the wide field of view of the SEM, the evaluation of a large number of grains by ECCI is not as time consuming as in TEM.
Equiaxed cells are only developed in grains oriented close to <001>//TA directions (Fig. 3c).
The remaining analyzed grains contain a well developed cell block structure (Fig. 3b).
The shape of such structures depends on the number of active sip systems.