Photocatalytic Reduction of Carbon Dioxide

Abstract:

World is facing problems of global warming as well as energy crisis. Both these problems can be solved to a reasonable extent by photoreduction of carbon dioxide. Here, photocatalysis enters the scene. Photocatalytic reduction to synthetic organic fuels like formaldehyde, methanol, formic acid, acetic acid, methane, etc. will provide a solution to the problem of energy crisis as it will give us alternate fuels, which can be burnt into fuel cells to generate electricity. Once we get electricity at the cost of carbon dioxide, one can convert this form of energy to any other form of energy. Secondly, it will give a solution to put a check on the increasing amount of carbon dioxide, which is the main culprit of global warming. Any conventional fuel on burring will add some molecules of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but synthetic fuels derived by photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide will not add even a single molecule of carbon dioxide in the environment. It can be considered as a short term loan of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide molecules utilized in the synthesis of alternate fuels are generated back on burning it in fuel cell.

• Periodical: Materials Science Forum (Volume 764)
• Pages: 83-96
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.764.83
• Online since: July 2013
• Authors: Rakshit Ameta, Shikha Panchal, Noopur Ameta, Suresh C. Ameta
• Keywords: Carbon Dioxide, Global Warming, Photocatalysis, Reduction, Synthetic Fuel

References

[1] P. G. Russell, N. Kovac, S. Srinivasan, M. Steinberg, The electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide, formic acid, and formaldehyde, J. Electrochem. Soc., 124(9) (1977) 1329-1338.

DOI: 10.1149/1.2133624

[2] T. Inoue, A. Fujishima, S. Konishi, K. Honda, Photoelectrocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide in aqueous suspension of semiconductor powders , Nature (London), 277 (5698) (1979) 637-638.

DOI: 10.1038/277637a0

[3] B. Aurian-Blajeni, M. Halmann, J. Manassen, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide and water into formaldehyde and methanol on semiconductor materials, Solar Energy, 25(2) (1980) 165-170.

DOI: 10.1016/0038-092x(80)90472-7

[4] K. Tennakone, A. H. Jayatissa, S. Punchihewa, Selective photoreduction of carbon dioxide to methanol with hydrous cuprous oxide, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 49(3) (1989) 369-375.

DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(89)87134-5

[5] L. B. Khalil, N. S. Youssef, M. W. Rophael, M. M. Moawad, Reduction of aqueous carbonate photocatalysed by treated semiconductors, J. Chem. Tech. Biotech., 55 (1992) 391-396.

DOI: 10.1002/jctb.280550415

[6] M. Kanemoto, H. Ankyu, Y. Wada, S. Yanagida, Semiconductor photocatalysis. Part 14. Visible-light induced photofixation of carbon dioxide into benzophenone catalyzed by colloidal CdS microcrystallites, Chem. Lett., 11 (1992) 2113-2114

DOI: 10.1246/cl.1992.2113

[7] R. Eggins, P. K. J. Robertson, J. H. Stewart, E. Woods, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide on zinc sulfide to give four-carbon and two-carbon acids, J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun., 4 (1993) 349-350.

DOI: 10.1039/c39930000349

[8] S. -P. Xu, H. D. Gafney, Photocatalyzed conversion of carbon dioxide to methane, Proc. Electrochem. Soc., 93-18 (1993) 38-46.

[9] M. A. Malati, L. Attubato, K. Beaney, Efficient photocatalysts for the reduction of aqueous carbonate and Cr (VI), Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 40(1) (1996) 1-4.

DOI: 10.1016/0927-0248(95)00059-3

[10] S. Kaneco, H. Kurimoto, K. Ohta, T. Mizuno, A. Saji, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 using TiO2 powders in liquid CO2 medium, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 109(1) (1997) 59-63.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00107-x

[11] T. S. Dzhabiev, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide with water in the presence of SiC/ZnO heterostructural semiconductor materials, Kinet. Catal., 38(6) (1997) 795-800.

[12] S. Yanagida, M. Kanemoto, K. -I. Ishihara, Y. Wada, T. Sakata, H. Mori, Semiconductor photocatalysis. Part 22. Visible-light induced photoreduction of CO2 with CdS nanocrystallites - Importance of the morphology and surface structures controlled through solvation by N,N-dimethylformamide, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 70(9) (1997) 2063-207.

DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.70.2063

[13] S. Kaneco, Y. Shimizu, K. Ohta, T. Mizuno, Photocatalytic reduction of high pressure carbon dioxide using TiO2 powders with a positive hole scavenger, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 115(3) (1998) 223-226.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(98)00274-3

[14] H. Yamashita, S. Kawasaki, M. Takeuchi, Y. Fujii, Y. Ichihashi, Y. Suzuki, S. Park, J. Chang, J. W. Yoo, M. Anpo, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on Ti/Si binary oxide catalysts prepared by the sol-gel method, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 114 (1998) 561-564.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(98)80821-5

[15] S. Yanagida, Y. Wada, K. Murakoshi, H. Fujiwara, T. Sakata, H. Mori, Photocatalytic reduction and fixation of CO2 on cadmium sulfide nanocrystallites, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 114 (1998) 183-188.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(98)80741-6

[16] S. Kaneco, H. Kurimoto, Y. Shimizu, K. Ohta, T. Mizuno, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 using TiO2 powders in supercritical fluid CO2, Energy, 24(1) (1999) 21-30.

DOI: 10.1016/s0360-5442(98)00070-x

[17] Y. Kohno, T. Tanaka, T. Funabiki, S. Yoshida, Photoreduction of CO2 with H2 over ZrO2. A study on interaction of hydrogen with photoexcited CO2, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2(11) (2000) 2635-2639.

DOI: 10.1039/b001642j

[18] Y. Kohno, H. Ishikawa, T. Tanaka, T. Funabiki, S. Yoshida, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen over magnesium oxide, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 3(6) (2001) 1108-1113.

DOI: 10.1039/b008887k

[19] G. Guan, T. Kida, T. Harada, M. Isayama, A. Yoshida, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide with water over K2Ti6O13 photocatalyst combined with Cu/ZnO catalyst under concentrated sunlight, Appl. Catal. A: Gen., 249(1) (2003) 11-18.

DOI: 10.1016/s0926-860x(03)00205-9

[20] G. R. Dey, A. D. Belapurkar, K. Kishore, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methane using TiO2 as suspension in water, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 163(3) (2004) 503-508.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2004.01.022

[21] K. Teramura, T. Tanaka, H. Ishikawa, Y. Kohno, T. Funabiki, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO in the presence of H2 or CH4 as a reductant over MgO, J. Phys. Chem. B, 108 (2004) 346-354.

DOI: 10.1021/jp0362943

[22] P. Pathak, M. J. Meziani, Y. Li, L. T. Cureton, Y. -P. Sun, Improving photoreduction of CO2 with homogeneously dispersed nanoscale TiO2 catalysts, Chem. Commun., 10(10) (2004) 1234-1235.

DOI: 10.1039/b400326h

[23] S. S. Tan, L. Zou, E. Hu, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide into gaseous hydrocarbon using TiO2 pellets, Catal. Today, 115(1–4) (2006) 269-273.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2006.02.057

[24] P. –W. Pan, Y. –W. Chen, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide on NiO/InTaO4 under visible light irradiation, Catal. Commun., 8(10) (2007) 1546-1549.

DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2007.01.006

[25] K. Teramura, H. Tsuneoka, T. Shishido, T. Tanaka, Effect of H2 gas as a reductant on photoreduction of CO2 over a Ga2O3 photocatalyst, Chem. Phys. Lett., 467(1-3) (2008) 191-194.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2008.10.079

[26] Y. Liu, B. Huang, Y. Dai, X. Zhang, X. Qin, M. Jiang, M. Whangbo, Selective ethanol formation from photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide in water with BiVO4 photocatalyst, Catal. Commun., 11(3) (2009) 210-213.

DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2009.10.010

[27] K. Kočí, L. Obalová, L. Matějová, D. Plachá, Z. Lacný, J. Jirkovský, O. Šolcová, Effect of TiO2 particle size on the photocatalytic reduction of CO2, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 89(3–4) (2009) 494-502.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.01.010

[28] K. Kočí, K. Matějů, L. Obalová, S. Krejčíková, Z. Lacný, D. Plachá, L. Čapek, A. Hospodková, O. Šolcová, Effect of silver doping on the TiO2 for photocatalytic reduction of CO2, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 96(3–4) (2010) 239-244.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2010.02.030

[29] S. Qin, F. Xin, Y. Liu, X. Yin, W. Ma, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 in methanol to methyl formate over CuO–TiO2 composite catalysts, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 356(1) (2011) 257-261.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2010.12.034

[30] C. Wang, R. L. Thompson, P. Ohodnicki, J. Baltrus, C. Matranga, Size-dependent photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with PbS quantum dot sensitized TiO2 heterostructured photocatalysts, J. Mater. Chem., 21(35) (2011) 13452-13457.

DOI: 10.1039/c1jm12367j

[31] D. S. Lee, H. Chen, Y. Chen, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide with water using InNbO4 catalyst with NiO and Co3O4 cocatalysts, J. Phys. Chem. Solids, 73(5) (2012) 661-669.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpcs.2012.01.005

[32] F. Sastre, A. Corma, H. García, 185 nm photoreduction of CO2 to methane by water. Influence of the presence of a basic catalyst, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 134(34) (2012) 14137-14141.

DOI: 10.1021/ja304930t

[33] T. S. Dzhabiev, B. B. Tarasov, A. M. Uskov, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide in aqueous semiconductor suspensions, Catal. Today, 13 (4) (1992) 695-696.

DOI: 10.1016/0920-5861(92)80113-2

[34] O. Ishitani, C. Inoue, Y. Suzuki, T. Ibusuki, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methane and acetic acid by an aqueous suspension of metal-deposited TiO2, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 72(3) (1993) 269-271.

DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(93)80023-3

[35] H. Inoue, H. Moriwaki, K. Maeda, H. Yoneyama, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide using chalcogenide semiconductor microcrystals, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 86(1-3) (1995) 191-196.

DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(94)03936-o

[36] Y. Kohno, T. Tanaka, T. Funabiki, S. Yoshida, H. Hayashi, S. Takenaka, Photo-enhanced reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen over Rh/TiO2, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 126(1-3) (1999) 117-123.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(99)00113-6

[37] I. H. Tseng, W. C. Chang, J. C. S. Wu, Photoreduction of CO2 using sol-gel derived titania and titania-supported copper catalysts, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 37(1) (2002) 37-48.

DOI: 10.1016/s0926-3373(01)00322-8

[38] G. Guan, T. Kida, A. Yoshida, Reduction of carbon dioxide with water under concentrated sunlight using photocatalyst combined with Fe-based catalyst, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 41(4) (2003) 387-396.

DOI: 10.1016/s0926-3373(02)00174-1

[39] I. -H. Tseng, J. C. S. Wu, H. -Y. Chou, Effects of sol-gel procedures on the photocatalysis of Cu/TiO2 in CO2 Photoreduction, J. Catal., 221(2) (2004) 432-440.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2003.09.002

[40] Slamet, H. W. Nasution, E. Purnama, S. Kosela, J. Gunlazuardi, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 on copper-doped titania catalysts prepared by improved-impregnation method, Catal. Commun., 6(5) (2005) 313-319.

DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2005.01.011

[41] N. Sasirekha, S. J. S. Basha, K. Shanthi, Photocatalytic performance of Ru doped anatase mounted on silica for reduction of carbon dioxide, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 62(1–2) (2006) 169-180.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2005.07.009

[42] K. Kočí, K. Zatloukalová, L. Obalová, S. Krejčíková, Z. Lacný, L. Čapek, A. Hospodková, O. Šolcová, Wavelength effect on photocatalytic reduction of CO2 by Ag/TiO2 catalyst, Chin. J. Catal., 32(5) (2011) 812-815.

DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2067(10)60199-4

[43] J. -M. Lehn, R. Ziessel, Photochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formate catalyzed by 2,2t́-bipyridine- or 1,10-phenanthroline-ruthenium (II) complexes, J. Organomet. Chem. , 382(1-2) (1990) 157-173.

DOI: 10.1016/0022-328x(90)85224-m

[44] G. Calzaferri, K. Hädener, J. Lij, Photoreduction and electroreduction of carbon dioxide by a novel rhenium (I) p-phenyl-terpyridine carbonyl complex, Photochem. Photobiol. A : Chem., 64 (1992) 259.

DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(92)85113-9

[45] E. Kimura, X. Bu, M. Shionoya, S. Wada, S. Maruyama, A new nickel (II) cyclam (cyclam = 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane) complex covalently attached to Ru(phen)32+ (phen = 1,10-phenanthroline). A new candidate for the catalytic photoreduction of carbon dioxide, Inorg. Chem., 31(22) (1992) 4542-4546.

DOI: 10.1021/ic00048a020

[46] S. C. Ameta, B. K. Sharma, R. Ameta, J. Kaur, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide over ferrocyanide-coated titanium dioxide powder, Int. J. Energ. Res., 21(10) (1998) 923–929.

DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-114x(199708)21:10<923::aid-er299>3.3.co;2-2

[47] B. K. Sharma, Ph. D. Thesis, M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur, India (1992).

[48] H. Hori, J. Ishihara, K. Koike, K. Takeuchi, T. Ibusuki, O. Ishitani, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using [fac-Re(bpy)(CO)3(4-Xpy)]+ (Xpy = pyridine derivatives), J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 120(2) (1999) 119-124.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(98)00430-4

[49] J. Grodkowski, T. Dhanasekaran, P. Neta, P. Hambright, B. S. Brunschwig, K. Shinozaki, E. Fujita, Reduction of cobalt and iron phthalocyanines and the role of the reduced species in catalyzed photoreduction of CO2, J. Phys. Chem. A , 104(48) (2000) 11332-11339.

DOI: 10.1021/jp002709y

[50] S. Jain, J. Vardia, A. Sharma, S. C. Ameta, Photocatalytic reduction of carbonates and formation of some energy rich systems in presence of toluidine blue, Int. J. Energ. Res., 25 (2001) 107-113.

DOI: 10.1002/er.664

[51] H. Hori, K. Koike, Y. Suzuki, M. Ishizuka, J. Tanaka, K. Takeuchi, Y. Sasaki, High-pressure photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using [fac-Re(bpy)(CO)3P(OiPr)3]+ (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine), J. Mol. Catal. A: Chem., 179(1–2) (2002) 1-9.

DOI: 10.1016/s1381-1169(01)00398-3

[52] T. Hirose, Y. Maeno, Y. Himeda, Photocatalytic carbon dioxide photoreduction by Co(bpy)32+ sensitized by Ru(bpy)32+ fixed to cation exchange polymer, J. Mol. Catal. A: Chem., 193(1–2) (2003) 27-32.

DOI: 10.1016/s1381-1169(02)00478-8

[53] A. Rios, M. Villagran, J. Costamagna, G. Ferraudi, Intermediates in the Ni II(2,4,9,11-tetramethyl-Napho2 [14]-2,4,6,9,11,13-hexaeneN4)-catalyzed photoreduction of CO2 to CO: A pulse-radiolytic and flash-photochemical study, J. Coord. Chem., 56(14) (2003) 1233-1244.

DOI: 10.1080/00958970310001629118

[54] S. Liu, Z. Zhao, Z. Wang, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using sol-gel derived titania-supported CoPc catalysts, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 6(6) (2007) 695-700.

DOI: 10.1039/b613098d

[55] H. Takeda , K. Koike , H. Inoue , O. Ishitani , Development of an efficient photocatalytic system for CO2 reduction using rhenium (I) complexes based on mechanistic studies, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 130 (6) (2008) 2023–2031.

DOI: 10.1021/ja077752e

[56] Z. Zhao, J. Fan, M. Xie, Z. Wang, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide with in-situ synthesized CoPc/TiO2 under visible light irradiation, J. Clean. Prod., 17(11) (2009) 1025-1029.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.02.016

[57] M. Schulz, M. Karnahl, M. Schwalbe, J. G. Vos, The role of the bridging ligand in photocatalytic supramolecular assemblies for the reduction of protons and carbon dioxide, Coord. Chem. Rev., 256(15–16) (2012) 1682-1705.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.02.016

[58] E. Portenkirchner, K. Oppelt, C. Ulbricht, D. A. M. Egbe, H. Neugebauer, G. Knör, N. S. Sariciftci, Electrocatalytic and photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide using the alkynyl-substituted rhenium (I) complex (5,5'-bisphenylethynyl-2,2'-bipyridyl) Re(CO)3Cl, J. Organomet. Chem., 716 (2012) 19-25.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jorganchem.2012.05.021

[59] C. D. Windle, M. V. Câmpian, A. -K. Duhme-Klair, E. A. Gibson, R. N. Perutz, J. Schneider, CO2 photoreduction with long-wavelength light: Dyads and monomers of zinc porphyrin and rhenium bipyridine, Chem. Commun., 48(66) (2012) 8189-8191.

DOI: 10.1039/c2cc33308b

[60] D. Liu, Y. Fernández, O. Ola, S. MacKintosh, M. Maroto-Valer, C. M. A. Parlett, A. F. Lee, J. C. S. Wu, On the impact of Cu dispersion on CO2 photoreduction over Cu/TiO2 Catal. Commun., 25 (2012) 78-82.

DOI: 10.1016/j.catcom.2012.03.025

[61] B. –J. Liu, T. Torimoto, H. Matsumoto, H. Yoneyama, Effect of solvents on photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using TiO2 nanocrystal photocatalyst embedded in SiO2 matrices, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 108 (2–3) (1997) 187-192.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00082-8

[62] J. Premkumar, R. Ramaraj, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid at porphyrin and phthalocyanine adsorbed Nafion membranes, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 110 (1) (1997) 53-58.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00156-1

[63] M. Anpo , H. Yamashita , Y. Ichihashi , Y. Fujii, M. Honda, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on titanium oxides anchored within micropores of zeolites:  Effects of the structure of the active sites and the addition of Pt, J. Phys. Chem. B, 101 (14) (1997) 2632–2636.

DOI: 10.1021/jp962696h

[64] P. Johne, H. Kisch, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide catalysed by free and supported zinc and cadmium sulphide powders, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 111(1-3) (1997) 223-228.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00228-1

[65] B. –J. Liu, T. Torimoto, H. Yoneyama, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide in the presence of nitrate using TiO2 nanocrystal photocatalyst embedded in SiO2 matrices, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 115 (3) (1998) 227-230.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(98)00272-x

[66] T. Torimoto, B. Liu, H. Yoneyama, Effect of solvents on photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide using semiconductor photocatalysts, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 114 (1998) 553-556.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(98)80819-7

[67] B. Liu, T. Torimoto, H. Yoneyama, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 using surface-modified CdS photocatalysts in organic solvents, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem., 113(1) (1998) 93-97.

DOI: 10.1016/s1010-6030(97)00318-3

[68] H. Yamashita, Y. Fujii, Y. Ichihashi, S. G. Zhang, K. Ikeue, D. R. Park, K. Koyano, T. Tatsumi, M. Anpo, Selective formation of CH3OH in the photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on titanium oxides highly dispersed within zeolites and mesoporous molecular sieves, Catal. Today, 450(1–4) (1998) 221-227.

DOI: 10.1016/s0920-5861(98)00219-3

[69] M. Anpo, H. Yamashita, K. Ikeue, Y. Fujii, Y. Ichihashi, S. G. Zhang, D. R. Park, S. Ehara, S. Park, J. Chang, and J. W. Yoo, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on titanium oxides anchored within zeolites, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 114 (1998) 177-182.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(98)80740-4

[70] M. Subrahmanyam, S. Kaneco, N. Alonso-Vante, A screening for the photo reduction of carbon dioxide supported on metal oxide catalysts for C1-C3 selectivity, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 23(2-3) (1999) 169-174.

DOI: 10.1016/s0926-3373(99)00079-x

[71] K. Ikeue , H. Yamashita, M. Anpo, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on Ti−β zeolite photocatalysts:  Effect of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties, J. Phys. Chem. B, 105 (35) (2001) 8350–8355.

DOI: 10.1021/jp010885g

[72] H. Yamashita, M. Okazaki, K. Ikeue, M. Anpo, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on Ti-containing mesoporous silica hydrophobically modified using fluoride ions, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 153 (2004) 289-294.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(04)80266-0

[73] J. -S. Hwang, J. -S. Chang, S. -E. Park, K. Ikeue, M. Anpo, High performance photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O by TiSBA-15 mesoporous material, Stud. Surf. Sci. Catal., 153 (2004) 299-302.

DOI: 10.1016/s0167-2991(04)80268-4

[74] H. -C. Yang, H. -Y. Lin, Y. -S. Chien, J. C. -S. Wu, H. -H. Wu, Mesoporous TiO2/SBA-15, and Cu/TiO2/SBA-15 composite photocatalysts for photoreduction of CO2 to methanol, Catal. Lett., 131(3-4) (2009) 381-387.

DOI: 10.1007/s10562-009-0076-y

[75] H. Li, Y. Lei, Y. Huang, Y. Fang, Y. Xu, L. Zhu, X. Li, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methanol by Cu2O/SiC nanocrystallite under visible light irradiation, J. Nat. Gas Chem., 20(2) (2011) 145-150.

DOI: 10.1016/s1003-9953(10)60166-1

[76] D. Luo, Y. Bi, W. Kan, N. Zhang, S. Hong, Copper and cerium co-doped titanium dioxide on catalytic photoreduction of carbon dioxide with water: Experimental and theoretical studies, J. Mol Struct., 994(1–3) (2011) 325-331.

DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2011.03.044

[77] P. L. Richardson, M. L. N. Perdigoto, W. Wang, R. J. G. Lopes, Manganese- and copper-doped titania nanocomposites for the photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide into methanol, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 126 (2012) 200-207.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.02.053

[78] Q. Zhang, W. Han, Y. Hong, J. Yu, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 with H2O on Pt-loaded TiO2 catalyst, Catal. Today, 148(3–4) (2009) 335-340.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2009.07.081

[79] L. Chen, M. E. Graham, G. Li, D. R. Gentner, N. M. Dimitrijevic, K. A. Gray, Photoreduction of CO2 by TiO2 nanocomposites synthesized through reactive direct current magnetron sputter deposition, Thin Solid Films, 517(19) (2009) 5641-5645.

DOI: 10.1016/j.tsf.2009.02.075

[80] J. Fan, E. Liu, B. Zeng, X. Hu, G. Chen, J. Yuan, Performance of Fe3+-doped nano titania catalyst in photocatalytic reduction of CO2, Shiyou Huagong/Petrochem. Technol., 38(7) (2009) 789-794.

[81] T. W. Woolerton, S. Sheard, E. Reisner, E. Pierce, S. W. Ragsdale, F. A. Armstrong, Efficient and clean photoreduction of CO2 to CO by enzyme-modified TiO2 nanoparticles using visible light, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132(7) (2010) 2132-2133.

DOI: 10.1021/ja910091z

[82] Q. Zhang, T. Gao, J. M. Andino, Y. Li, Copper and iodine co-modified TiO2 nanoparticles for improved activity of CO2 photoreduction with water vapor, Appl. Catal., B: Environ., 123-124 (2012) 257-264.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.04.035

[83] X. Li, H. Pan, W. Li, Z. Zhuang, Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to methane over HNb3O8 nanobelts, Appl. Catal., B: Gen., 413-414 (2012) 103-108.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2011.10.044

[84] D. Luo, N. Zhang, S. Hong, H. Wu, Z. Liu, Complexes in the photocatalytic reaction of CO2 and H2O: Theoretical studies, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 11(8) (2010) 2792-2804.

DOI: 10.3390/ijms11082792

[85] A. M. Khenkin, I. Efremenko, L. Weiner, J. M. L. Martin, R. Neumann, Photochemical reduction of carbon dioxide catalyzed by a ruthenium substituted polyoxometalate, Chemistry - A Europ. J., 16(4) (2010) 1356-1364.

DOI: 10.1002/chem.200901673

[86] I. Kocemba, J. Nadajczyk, J. Góralski, M. Szynkowska, Photoreduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen using temperature programmed method, Pol. J. Chem Tech., 12(3) (2010) 1-2.

DOI: 10.2478/v10026-010-0022-1

[87] J. Jensen, M. Mikkelsen, F. C. Krebs, Flexible substrates as basis for photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells, 95(11) (2011) 2949-2958.

DOI: 10.1016/j.solmat.2011.06.040

[88] K. Kočí, M. Reli, O. Kozák, Z. Lacný, D. Plachá, P. Praus, L. Obalová, Influence of reactor geometry on the yield of CO2 photocatalytic reduction, Catal. Today, 176(1) (2011) 212-214.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2010.12.054

[89] W. Hou, W. H. Hung, P. Pavaskar, A. Goeppert, M. Aykol, S. B. Cronin, Photocatalytic conversion of CO2 to hydrocarbon fuels via plasmon-enhanced absorption and metallic interband transitions, ACS Catalysis 1(8) (2011) 929-936.

DOI: 10.1021/cs2001434

[90] Y. T. Liang, B. K. Vijayan, K. A. Gray, M. C. Hersam, Minimizing graphene defects enhances titania nanocomposite-based photocatalytic reduction of CO2 for improved solar fuel production, Nano Lett., 11 (7) (2011) 2865-2870.

DOI: 10.1021/nl2012906

[91] Q. Zhang, Y. E. A. Ackerman, M. Gajdardziska-Josifovska, H. Li, Visible light responsive iodine-doped TiO2 for photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to fuels, Appl. Catal., A: Gen. 400 (1-2) (2011) 195-202.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcata.2011.04.032

[92] N. Ahmed, N. Shibata, T. Taniguchi, Y. Izumi, Photocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide into methanol using zinc-copper-M (III) (M = aluminum, gallium) layered double hydroxides, J. Catal., 279 (1) (2011) 123-135.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2011.01.004

[93] P. -Y. Liou, S. -C Chen, J. C. S. Wu, D. Liu, S. MacKintosh, M. Maroto-Valer, R. Linforth, Photocatalytic CO2 reduction using an internally illuminated monolith photoreactor, Energy Environ. Sci., 4 (4) (2011) 1487-1494

DOI: 10.1039/c0ee00609b

[94] V. Jeyalakshmi, R. Mahalakshmy, K. R. Krishnamurthy, B. Viswanathan, Catalysts for photoreduction of carbon dioxide: Role of modifiers, Indian J. Chem., A, 51(9-10) (2012) 1263-1283.

[95] L. Liu, H. Zhao, J. M. Andino, Y. Li, Photocatalytic CO2 reduction with H2O on TiO2 nanocrystals: Comparison of anatase, rutile, and brookite polymorphs and exploration of surface chemistry, ACS Catalysis, 2(8) (2012) 1817-1828.

DOI: 10.1021/cs300273q

[96] X. Li, W. Li, Z. Zhuang, Y. Zhong, Q. Li, L. Wang, Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to methane over SiO2-pillared HNb3O8, J. Phys. Chem. C, 116(30) (2012) 16047-16053.

DOI: 10.1021/jp303365z

[97] Qina, G.; Zhanga, Y.; Keb, X.; Tonga, X.; Suna, Z.; Lianga, M.; Xuea, S. Photocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid, formaldehyde, and methanol using dye-sensitized TiO2 film, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 129 (2013) 599– 605.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apcatb.2012.10.012