Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Extract of Grewia tenax Fruits for Potential Antibacterial Application

Abstract:

Public health is seriously threatened by antibiotic-resistant microbes, which calls for creative responses. This work examines the green manufacture of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) using Grewia tenax fruit aqueous extract and assesses how efficient they are as antibacterial agents. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to characterize the produced nanoparticles. With zones of inhibition (ZOI) of 22.67 mm against Escherichia coli and 24.3 mm against Staphylococcus aureus, the ZnO NPs demonstrated exceptional antibacterial activity. Significantly, the nanoparticles' diverse morphology-mostly appearing as rods and spheres-correlated with their increased antibacterial activity. Since greater dosages did not produce better outcomes, it was determined that the ideal concentration range for efficient antibacterial action was between 0.05 and 0.4 mg/mL. Through membrane rupture and the release of Zn²⁺ ions, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced, causing oxidative stress and ultimately bacterial cell death. This study demonstrates the potential of ZnO NPs made from Grewia tenax as powerful antibacterial agents and recommends more synthesis parameter optimization to increase their effectiveness and expand their uses in environmental science and medicine.

• Periodical: Journal of Biomimetics, Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering (Volume 68)
• Pages: 63-80
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/p-d18oAL
• Online since: June 2025
• Authors: Ibrahim A. Amar*, Maryam M. Ehmayadah, Hana A. Alsahreef, Shamsi Saad Shamsi, Moussa Khlifa, Ihssin A. Abdalsamed, Ahmad Hosseini-Bandegharaei
• Keywords: Antibacterial Activity, Green Synthesis, Grewia tenax Extract, Plant Extract, Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs)

References

[1] A. Gupta, S. Mumtaz, C.-H. Li, I. Hussain, V.M. Rotello, Combatting antibiotic-resistant bacteria using nanomaterials, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 415-427.

DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00748e

[2] D. van Duin, D.L. Paterson, Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in the Community: An Update,  Infect. Dis. Clin. North. Am. 34 (2020) 709-722.

DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2020.08.002

[3] IACG, No Time to Wait: Securing the future from drug-resistant infections. Report to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, 2019.

[4] H. Zheng, J. Tang, Y. Wei, X. Deng, Y. Zhang, X. Ma, X. Jiang, Z.P. Xu, H. Liao, Antibacterial properties of cerium oxide nanoparticles: Recent progresses and future challenges , Particuology. 93 (2024) 264-283.

DOI: 10.1016/j.partic.2024.06.017

[5] P. Yadav, S. Jain, S. Nimesh, N. Gupta, S. Chatterjee, Grewia tenax bark extract mediated silver nanoparticles as an antibacterial, antibiofilm and antifungal agent, Adv. Nat. Sci.: Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 15 (2024) 015013.

DOI: 10.1088/2043-6262/ad2c79

[6] W.M. Saod, M.S. Al-Janaby, E.W. Gayadh, A. Ramizy, L.L. Hamid, Biogenic synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus sabdariffa extract: Potential for antibiotic development and antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, Curr. Res. Green Sustainable Chem. 8 (2024) 100397.

DOI: 10.1016/j.crgsc.2024.100397

[7] A.B. Younis, V. Milosavljevic, T. Fialova, K. Smerkova, H. Michalkova, P. Svec, P. Antal, P. Kopel, V. Adam, L. Zurek, K. Dolezelikova, Synthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles combined with geraniol and their synergistic antibacterial activity, BMC Microbiol. 23 (2023) 207.

DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-02955-1

[8] M.R. Kamli, M.A. Malik, V. Srivastava, J.S.M. Sabir, E.H. Mattar, A. Ahmad, Biogenic ZnO Nanoparticles Synthesized from Origanum vulgare Abrogates Quorum Sensing and Biofilm Formation in Opportunistic Pathogen Chromobacterium violaceum, Pharmaceutics. 13 (2021) 1743.

DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13111743

[9] A.M. Ferreira, A. Vikulina, M. Loughlin, D. Volodkin, How similar is the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles coated with different capping agents?, RSC Adv. 13 (2023) 10542-10555.

DOI: 10.1039/d3ra00917c

[10] M.M. Shanwaz, P. Shyam, Anti-bacterial Effect and Characteristics of Gold Nanoparticles (AuNps) Formed with Vitex negundo Plant Extract, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 195 (2023) 1630-1643.

DOI: 10.1007/s12010-022-04217-8

[11] N.M.A. Aziz, D.A. Goda, D.I. Abdel-Meguid, E.E. El-Sharouny, N.A. Soliman, A comparative study of the biosynthesis of CuNPs by Niallia circulans G9 and Paenibacillus sp. S4c strains: characterization and application as antimicrobial agents, Microb. Cell Fact. 23 (2024) 156.

DOI: 10.1186/s12934-024-02422-0

[12] D.R. Jaishi, I. Ojha, G. Bhattarai, R. Baraili, I. Pathak, D.R. Ojha, D.K. Shrestha, K.R. Sharma, Plant-mediated synthesis of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles using Alnus nepalensis D. Don for biological applications. Heliyon, 10 (2024) e39255.

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39255

[13] I.A. Amar, S.A. Shamsi, R.M. Saheem, A.A. Altawati, M.A. Abdulkarim, M.A. Abdulqadir, I.A. Abdalsamed, Surfactant-Assisted Co-Precipitation Synthesis of Ca-Doped Ceria Nanoparticles for Antibacterial Applications, Adv. J. Chem. A, 4 (2021) 10-21.

[14] I.A. Amar, S.S. Kanah, H.A. Hijaz, M.A. Abdulqadir, S.A. Shamsi, I.A. Abdalsamed, M.A. Samba, Surfactant-assisted sol-gel synthesis of zinc ferrite magnetic nanoparticles for oil spills cleanup from seawater and antibacterial activity applications, World J. Eng. 20 (2023) 713-721.

DOI: 10.1108/wje-10-2021-0605

[15] I.A. Amar, M.A. Abdulqadir, A. Benettayeb, B. Lal, S.A. Shamsi, A. Hosseini-Bandegharaei, Cerium-Doped Calcium Ferrite for Malachite Green Dye Removal and Antibacterial Activities Chem. Afr. 7 (2024) 1423-1441.

DOI: 10.1007/s42250-023-00834-w

[16] Y.H.I. Mohammed, S. Alghamdi, B. Jabbar, D. Marghani, S. Beigh, A.S. Abouzied, N.E. Khalifa, W.M.A. Khojali, B. Huwaimel, D.H.M. Alkhalifah, W.N. Hozzein, Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Cymbopogon citratus Extract and Its Antibacterial Activity, ACS Omega. 8 (2023) 32027-32042.

DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c03908

[17] M.Y. Al-darwesh, S.S. Ibrahim, M.A. Mohammed, A review on plant extract mediated green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their biomedical applications, Results Chem. 7 (2024) 101368.

DOI: 10.1016/j.rechem.2024.101368

[18] H. Agarwal, S. Venkat Kumar, S. Rajeshkumar, A review on green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles – An eco-friendly approach. Resour.-Effic. Technol. 3 (2017) 406-413.

DOI: 10.1016/j.reffit.2017.03.002

[19] K. Kisimba, A. Krishnan, M. Faya, K. Byanga, K. Kasumbwe, K. Vijayakumar, R. Prasad, Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles Based on Green Chemistry and Their Medical Biochemical Applications: Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles, J. Renewable Mater. 11 (2023) 2575-2591.

DOI: 10.32604/jrm.2023.026159

[20] J. Gangwar, B. Balasubramanian, A. Pratap Singh, A. Meyyazhagan, M. Pappuswamy, A.M. Alanazi, K.R.R. Rengasamy, J. Kadanthottu Sebastian, Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles mediated by Strobilanthes hamiltoniana: Characterizations, and its biological applications , Kuwait J Sci. 51 (2024) 100102.

DOI: 10.1016/j.kjs.2023.07.008

[21] D.K. Takcı, M.S. Ozdenefe, T. Huner, H.A.M. Takcı, Plant-mediated green route to the synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: in vitro antibacterial potential. J. Aust. Ceram. Soc. (2024).

DOI: 10.1007/s41779-024-01064-0

[22] R. Hamed, R.Z. Obeid, R. Abu-Huwaij, Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications, Nanotechnol. Rev. 12 (2023) 20230112.

DOI: 10.1515/ntrev-2023-0112

[23] A. Melese, W. Wubet, A. Hussen, K. Mulate, A. Hailekiros, A review on biogenic synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization, and its applications, Rev. Inorg. Chem. 44 (2024) 303-321.

DOI: 10.1515/revic-2023-0022

[24] M. Naseer, U. Aslam, B. Khalid, B. Chen, Green route to synthesize Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles using leaf extracts of Cassia fistula and Melia azadarach and their antibacterial potential, Sci. Rep. 10 (2020) 9055.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65949-3

[25] T.S. Aldeen, H.E. Ahmed Mohamed, M. Maaza, ZnO nanoparticles prepared via a green synthesis approach: Physical properties, photocatalytic and antibacterial activity, J. Phys. Chem. Solids. 160 (2022) 110313.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpcs.2021.110313

[26] S.S. Sana, R. Vadde, R. Kumar, S.K. Arla, A.R. Somala, K.S.V. Krishna Rao, Z. Zhijun, V.K.N. Boya, K. Mondal, N. Mamidi, Eco-friendly and facile production of antibacterial zinc oxide nanoparticles from Grewia flavescens (G. flavescens) leaf extract for biomedical applications, J. Drug Delivery Sci. Technol. 80 (2023) 104186.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2023.104186

[27] M.F. Islam, S. islam, M.A.S. Miah, A.K.O. Huq, A.K. Saha, Z.J. Mou, M.M.H. Mondol, M.N.I. Bhuiyan, Green synthesis of zinc oxide nano particles using Allium cepa L. waste peel extracts and its antioxidant and antibacterial activities, Heliyon, 10 (2024) e25430.

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25430

[28] A. Fouda, E. Saied, A.M. Eid, F. Kouadri, A.M. Alemam, M.F. Hamza, M. Alharbi, A. Elkelish, S.E.-D. Hassan, Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using an Aqueous Extract of Punica granatum for Antimicrobial and Catalytic Activity, J. Funct. Biomater. 14 (2023) 205.

DOI: 10.3390/jfb14040205

[29] S. Faisal, H. Jan, S.A. Shah, S. Shah, A. Khan, M.T. Akbar, M. Rizwan, F. Jan, Wajidullah, N. Akhtar, A. Khattak, S. Syed, Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles Using Aqueous Fruit Extracts of Myristica fragrans: Their Characterizations and Biological and Environmental Applications, ACS Omega. 6 (2021) 9709-9722.

DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c00310

[30] V. Sharma, G. Kumar, P. Kumar, D. Kumar, M. Nemiwal, Green Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles from Dysoxylum binectariferum Fruit Extract and Assessment of Antimicrobial Potential, ChemistrySelect, 9 (2024) e202402125.

DOI: 10.1002/slct.202402125

[31] A.E.A. Yagoub, G.M. Al-Shammari, L.N. Al-Harbi, P. Subash-Babu, R. Elsayim, M.A. Mohammed, M.A. Yahya, S.Z.A. Fattiny, Antimicrobial Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized from Lavandula pubescens Shoot Methanol Extract, Appl. Sci. 12 (2022) 11613.

DOI: 10.3390/app122211613

[32] M.A.H. Hamami, I.A. Mohamed Ahmed, F.Y. Al-Juhaimi, Y.I. Shoqairan, A.A. AbuDujayn, E.E. Babiker, Utilization of Grewia tenax fruit dried-ground as a preservative and antioxidant in beef burgers, CYTA J Food. 22 (2024) 2341794.

DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2024.2341794

[33] A.M.E. Sulieman, A.A. Mariod, Grewia tenax (Guddaim): Phytochemical Constituents, Bioactive Compounds, Traditional and Medicinal Uses, in: A.A. Mariod (Ed.) Wild Fruits: Composition, Nutritional Value and Products, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2019, pp.165-173.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-31885-7_14

[34] M.S. Al-Said, R.A. Mothana, M.O. Al-Sohaibani, S. Rafatullah, Ameliorative Effect of Grewia tenax (Forssk) Fiori Fruit Extract on CCl4–Induced Oxidative Stress and Hepatotoxicity in Rats, J. Food Sci. 76 (2011) T200-T206.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02381.x

[35] P. Yadav, M. Singhal, S. Chatterjee, S. Nimesh, N. Gupta, Grewia tenax-Mediated Silver Nanoparticles as Efficient Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents, Nanomater. Nanotechnol. 2024 (2024) 9912599.

DOI: 10.1155/2024/9912599

[36] E. Erb, in, https://www.southernafricanplants.net/plantdata_sub.php?Mspec_ID=2814, Accessed: 31-12-2024.

[37] J. Gebauer, A. Patzelt, K. Hammer, A. Buerkert, First record of Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori in northern Oman, a valuable fruit producing shrub, Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 54 (2007) 1153-1158.

DOI: 10.1007/s10722-007-9241-6

[38] S.K. Aditha, A.D. Kurdekar, L.A.A. Chunduri, S. Patnaik, V. Kamisetti, Aqueous based reflux method for green synthesis of nanostructures: Application in CZTS synthesis, MethodsX, 3 (2016) 35-42.

DOI: 10.1016/j.mex.2015.12.003

[39] J. Jalab, W. Abdelwahed, A. Kitaz, R. Al-Kayali, Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract of Acacia cyanophylla and its antibacterial activity, Heliyon. 7 (2021) e08033.

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08033

[40] L. Lajoie, A.-S. Fabiano-Tixier, F. Chemat, Water as Green Solvent: Methods of Solubilisation and Extraction of Natural Products—Past, Present and Future Solutions, Pharmaceuticals. 15 (2022) 1507.

DOI: 10.3390/ph15121507

[41] F.H. Abdullah, N.H.H. Abu Bakar, M. Abu Bakar, Low temperature biosynthesis of crystalline zinc oxide nanoparticles from Musa acuminata peel extract for visible-light degradation of methylene blue, Optik. 206 (2020) 164279.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.164279

[42] D. Mutukwa, R.T. Taziwa, L. Khotseng, A Review of Plant-Mediated ZnO Nanoparticles for Photodegradation and Antibacterial Applications, Nanomaterials. 14 (2024) 1182.

DOI: 10.3390/nano14141182

[43] S. Donga, S. Chanda, Caesalpinia crista Seeds Mediated Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Antibacterial, Antioxidant, and Anticancer Activities, BioNanoScience. 12 (2022) 451-462.

DOI: 10.1007/s12668-022-00952-8

[44] G.M. Abdelghani, A.B. Ahmed, A.B. Al-Zubaidi, Synthesis, characterization, and the influence of energy of irradiation on optical properties of ZnO nanostructures, Sci. Rep. 12 (2022) 20016.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24648-x

[45] S. Saleem, M.H. Jameel, A. Rehman, M.B. Tahir, M.I. Irshad, Z.Y. Jiang, R.Q. Malik, A.A. Hussain, A.u. Rehman, A.H. Jabbar, A.Y. Alzahrani, M.A. Salem, M.M. Hessien, Evaluation of structural, morphological, optical, and electrical properties of zinc oxide semiconductor nanoparticles with microwave plasma treatment for electronic device applications, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 19 (2022) 2126-2134.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.05.190

[46] J. Pasquet, Y. Chevalier, J. Pelletier, E. Couval, D. Bouvier, M.-A. Bolzinger, The contribution of zinc ions to the antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide, Colloid Surf. A-Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 457 (2014) 263-274.

DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2014.05.057

[47] P. Ramesh, K. Saravanan, P. Manogar, J. Johnson, E. Vinoth, M. Mayakannan, Green synthesis and characterization of biocompatible zinc oxide nanoparticles and evaluation of its antibacterial potential, Sens. Bio-Sens. Res. 31 (2021) 100399.

DOI: 10.1016/j.sbsr.2021.100399

[48] T. Ohira, O. Yamamoto, Correlation between antibacterial activity and crystallite size on ceramics, Chem. Eng. Sci. 68 (2012) 355-361.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2011.09.043

[49] K. Singh, Nancy, M. Bhattu, G. Singh, N.M. Mubarak, J. Singh, Light-absorption-driven photocatalysis and antimicrobial potential of PVP-capped zinc oxide nanoparticles, Sci Rep. 13 (2023) 13886.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41103-7

[50] S.G. Bekele, D.D. Ganta, M. Endashaw, Green synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles using Monoon longifolium leave extract for biological applications, Discov. Chem. 1 (2024) 5.

DOI: 10.1007/s44371-024-00007-9

[51] A. Kumar, M. Bhasin, M. Chitkara, Morphological analysis and grain size distribution of SnO2 nanoparticles via digital image processing across diverse calcination temperatures, J. Microsc. 292 (2023) 123-134.

DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13241

[52] R. Haddi, A.M. El Kharraz, M.I. Kerroumi, Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Using Pistacia lentiscus L. Leaf Extact and Evaluating their Antioxydant and Antibacterial Properties, Nano Biomed. Eng. 16 (2024) 232-247.

DOI: 10.26599/nbe.2024.9290056

[53] A. Joseph Anthuvan, K. Kumaravel, V. Chinnuswamy, Synergetic effect of hierarchical zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructure with enhanced adsorption and antibacterial action towards waterborne detrimental contaminants, Appl. Nanosci. 11 (2021) 2181-2198.

DOI: 10.1007/s13204-021-01967-5

[54] N.B. Raj, N.T. Pavithra Gowda, O.S. Pooja, B. Purushotham, M.R.A. Kumar, S.K. Sukrutha, C.R. Ravikumar, H.P. Nagaswarupa, H.C.A. Murthy, S.B. Boppana, Harnessing ZnO nanoparticles for antimicrobial and photocatalytic activities, J. Photochem. Photobiol. 6 (2021) 100021.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jpap.2021.100021

[55] K. Elumalai, S. Velmurugan, Green synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles from the leaf extract of Azadirachta indica (L.), Appl. Surf. Sci. 345 (2015) 329-336.

DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.03.176

[56] E.K. Droepenu, E. Amenyogbe, M.A. Boatemaa, E. Opoku, Study of the antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide nanostructures mediated by two morphological structures of leaf extracts of Eucalyptus radiata, Heliyon, 10 (2024) e25590.

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25590

[57] H.K. Abdelhakim, E.R. El‐Sayed, F.B. Rashidi, Biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles with antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant and photocatalytic activities by the endophytic Alternaria tenuissima, J. Appl. Microbiol. 128 (2020) 1634-1646.

DOI: 10.1111/jam.14581

[58] G.S. Thirumoorthy, O. Balasubramaniam, P. Kumaresan, P. Muthusamy, K. Subramani, Tetraselmis indica Mediated Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanoparticles and Evaluating Its Antibacterial, Antioxidant, and Hemolytic Activity, Bionanoscience. 11 (2021) 172-181.

DOI: 10.1007/s12668-020-00817-y

[59] A.M. Abdo, A. Fouda, A.M. Eid, N.M. Fahmy, A.M. Elsayed, A.M. Khalil, O.M. Alzahrani, A.F. Ahmed, A.M. Soliman, Green Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Their Activity against Pathogenic Microbes and Common House Mosquito, Culex pipiens, Materials. 14 (2021) 6983.

DOI: 10.3390/ma14226983

[60] H. Mohd Yusof, R. Mohamad, U.H. Zaidan, N.A. Abdul Rahman, Microbial synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their potential application as an antimicrobial agent and a feed supplement in animal industry: a review, J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol.10 (2019) 57.

DOI: 10.1186/s40104-019-0368-z