Paper Titles
Kinetic Modeling of Shea Butter Transesterification Catalyzed by Barium Chloride Doped Clay Catalyst
p.1
Development of Water Atomization System for the Production of Aluminium Powder from End-of-Life Aluminium Metal in Nigeria
p.25
Development of a Material Based on Shale and Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Road Construction
p.51
Parametric Finite Element Analysis of Back-to-Back Mechanically Stabilized Earth (BBMSE) Walls on Sloped Ground: A PLAXIS 2D Case Study Investigating Geometry and Reinforcement Effects
p.67
Enhancing Prediction Performance in Tunnel Water Inflow with the Improved Stacking Machine Learning Framework
p.85
Influence of Minor Coarse Aggregate Fractions on Hardfill Strength: A Case Study of Mallegue-Amont Dam
p.107
Experimental and Predictive Study of the Flexural Behavior of Self-Compacting Rubberized Steel-Reinforced Concrete
p.135
Rheological and Tribological Behavior of Cementitious Materials Incorporating Recycled Concrete Sand and Quarry Waste Sand
p.155
Monitoring and Assessment of Seasonal Variation of Water Quality Using a Multi-Band Cloud Based Application in Coastal Environment
p.181

Kinetic Modeling of Shea Butter Transesterification Catalyzed by Barium Chloride Doped Clay Catalyst

Article Preview

Abstract:

The kinetics and mechanism of transesterification of Shea butter to produce fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) were investigated using a catalyst developed from clay impregnated with barium chloride (CD-BaCl2). The catalyst was prepared by mixing 10% BaCl2 chloride with clay, drying it, and calcining it at 600°C for four hours. The synthesized catalysts were characterized using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) to determine their suitability. The effects of methanol/mol ratio, catalyst concentration, temperature, agitation speed and time on FAME production were evaluated using the synthesized catalyst. Two elementary reaction mechanisms, Eley-Rideal (ER) and Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) were used to analyze the kinetics. CD-BaCl2 effectively converted Shea butter into FAME, and variations in the process parameters had a significant impact. A 4wt% catalyst dosage, a 10:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, a 2-hour reaction time, a speed of 300rpm, and a temperature of 60°C resulted in approximately 70% FAME. The kinetic results showed that LHHW provided the best representation of the experimental data with the CD-BaCl2 catalyst. The rate-determining step (RDS) was the surface reaction linking the adsorbed triglyceride and adsorbed alcohol. The rate increased with temperature, indicating an endothermic reaction. The activation energy and frequency factor for the reaction were 2.49 kJ/mol and 8.61 h-1, respectively, occurring at a temperature below the boiling point of methanol. The model's capability was evaluated by validating the experimental data, showing a good relationship. Keywords: FAME, shea butter, LHHW, ER, clay

You might also be interested in these eBooks
International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa Vol. 77 View Preview

Info:

Periodical:

International Journal of Engineering Research in Africa (Volume 77)

Pages:

1-24

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.4028/p-7fGj5w

Citation:

Cite this paper

Online since:

December 2025

Authors:

Nwosu Obieogu Kenechi*, Ude Callistus Nonso, Onukwuli Dominic Okechukwu, Joseph Ezeugo

Keywords:

Clay, Eley-Rideal, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester, Shea Butter

Export:

RIS, BibTeX

Price:

Permissions CCC:

Request Permissions

Permissions PLS:

Request Permissions

Сopyright:

© 2025 Trans Tech Publications Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Share:

Citation:

* - Corresponding Author

References

[1] D. Rhithuparna, N. Ghosh, R. Khatoon, S.L. Rokhum, G. Halder, Evaluating the commercial potential of Cocos nucifera derived biochar catalyst in biodiesel synthesis from Kanuga oil: Optimization, kinetics, thermodynamics, and process cost analysis. Process Safety and Environmental Protection (2024) 183, 859-874.

DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2024.01.030

Google Scholar

[2] E.O. Babatunde, S. Enomah, O.M. Akwenuke, T.F. Adepoju, C.O. Okwelum, M.M. Mundu, A. Aiki, O.D. Oghenejabor, Novel-activated carbon from waste green coconut husks for the synthesis of biodiesel from pig fat oil blends with tallow seed oil. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 11 (2025) 101058.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cscee.2024.101058

Google Scholar

[3] H.K. Ooi, X.N. Koh, H.C. Ong, H.V. Lee, M.S. Mastuli, Y.H. Taufiq-Yap, F.A. Alharthi, A.A. Alghamdi, N.A. Mijan, Progress on modified calcium oxide-derived waste-shell catalysts for FAME production. Catalysts 11(2) (2021) 1-26

DOI: 10.3390/catal11020194

Google Scholar

[4] S. Saman, A. Balouch, F.N. Talpur, A.A. Memon, B.M. Mousavi, F. Verpoort, Green synthesis of MgO nanocatalyst by using Ziziphus mauritiana leaves and seeds for FAME production. Applied Organometallic Chemistry 35(5) (2021) 1-10

DOI: 10.1002/aoc.6199

Google Scholar

[5] K. Nwosu-obieogu, J. Ezeugo, O.D. Onukwuli, C.N. Ude, Modelling and optimizing the transesterification process of shea butter via CD-BaCl-IL catalyst using soft computing algorithms. Results in Engineering 22 (2024) 102004.

DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102004

Google Scholar

[6] K. Nwosu-Obieogu, U.C. Nonso, O.D. Onukwuli, J.O. Ezeugo, Kinetics, modelling and optimization of Shea butter transesterification clay doped ionic liquid catalyst. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering 51(1) (2025) 232-252.

DOI: 10.1016/j.sajce.2024.12.001

Google Scholar

[7] M. Takase, Ghanaian clay as a catalyst for transesterificating shea butter oil as alternative feedstock for green energy production. International Journal of Chemical Engineering (2022) 8805668.

DOI: 10.1155/2022/8805668

Google Scholar

[8] T. Parangi, Heterogeneous catalysis: an alternative approach for energy and environment. Reviews in Inorganic Chemistry (2025).

Google Scholar

[9] M. Noman, M. Farooq, A. Ramli, D. Muhammad, F. Perveen, Z.A. Ghazi, M. Irshad, Optimizing Acid Heterogeneous Catalyzed Biodiesel Production from Diverse Feedstocks: A Sustainable Approach to Renewable Energy. Chemical Engineering Research and Design (2025).

DOI: 10.1016/j.cherd.2025.07.029

Google Scholar

[10] A. Hussain, I. Ghaffar, S. Sattar, M. Muneeb, A. Hasan, B. Deepanraj, Eco-friendly catalysts revolutionizing energy and environmental applications: An overview. Topics in Catalysis 68(5) (2025) 487-509.

DOI: 10.1007/s11244-024-01976-y

Google Scholar

[11] H. Singh, A. Ali, Potassium and 12-tungstophosphoric acid loaded alumina as heterogeneous catalyst for the esterification as well as transesterification of waste cooking oil in a single pot. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering 16(1) (2021) e2585.

DOI: 10.1002/apj.2585

Google Scholar

[12] R. Malhotra, A. Ali, 5-Na/ZnO doped mesoporous silica as reusable solid catalyst for biodiesel production via transesterification of virgin cottonseed oil. Renewable Energy 133 (2019) 606-619.

DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2018.10.055

Google Scholar

[13] M. Kaur, R. Malhotra, A. Ali, Tungsten supported Ti/SiO2 nanoflowers as reusable heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. Renewable Energy 116 (2018) 109-119.

DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.065

Google Scholar

[14] C.N. Ude, O.D. Onukwuli, Kinetic modeling of transesterification of gmelina seed oil catalyzed by alkaline activated clay (NaOH/clay) catalyst. Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis 127(2) (2019) 1039-1058

DOI: 10.1007/s11144-019-01604-x

Google Scholar

[15] M.Z. Salmasi, M. Kazemeini, S. Sadjadi, Transesterification of sunflower oil to FAME fuel utilizing a novel K2CO3/Talc catalyst: Process optimizations and kinetics investigations. Industrial Crops and Products 156 (2020) 112846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop. 2020.112846

DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112846

Google Scholar

[16] A. Inayat, A.M. Nassef, H. Rezk, E.T. Sayed, M.A. Abdelkareem, A.G. Olabi, Fuzzy modeling and parameters optimization for the enhancement of FAME production from waste frying oil over montmorillonite clay K-30. Science of the Total Environment 666 (2019) 821-827

DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.321

Google Scholar

[17] S. Jalalmanesh, M. Kazemeini, M.H. Rahmani, M.Z. Salmasi, FAME Production from Sunflower Oil Using K2CO3 Impregnated Kaolin Novel Solid Base Catalyst. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 98(6) (2021) 633-642

DOI: 10.1002/aocs.12486

Google Scholar

[18] T.H. Đặng, X.H. Nguyễn, C.L. Chou, B.H. Chen, Preparation of cancrinite-type zeolite from diatomaceous earth as transesterification catalysts for FAME production. Renewable Energy 174 (2021) 347-358.

DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.04.068

Google Scholar

[19] H. Widiyandari, O. Prilita, M.S. Al Ja'farawy, F. Nurosyid, O. Arutanti, Y. Astuti, N. Mufti, Nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots supported zinc oxide (ZnO/N-CQD) nanoflower photocatalyst for methylene blue photodegradation. Results in Engineering 17 (2023) 100814.

DOI: 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100814

Google Scholar

[20] R. Naveenkumar, G. Baskar, Optimization and techno-economic analysis of FAME production from Calophyllum inophyllum oil using heterogeneous nanocatalyst. Bioresource Technology 315 (2020) 123852

DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123852

Google Scholar

[21] M. Kuniyil, J.V. Shanmukha Kumar, S.F. Adil, M.E. Assal, M.R. Shaik, M. Khan, A. Al-Warthan, M.R.H. Siddiqui, Production of FAME from waste cooking oil using ZnCuO/N-doped graphene nanocomposite as an efficient heterogeneous catalyst. Arabian Journal of Chemistry 14(3) (2021) 102982

DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.102982

Google Scholar

[22] K. Nwosu-Obieogu, U.C. Nonso, O.D. Okechukwu, J. E. Joseph, Kinetics and soft computing evaluation of Linseed oil transesterification via CD-BaCl-IL catalyst. Heliyon 10(18) (2024).

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37686

Google Scholar

[23] A.S. Yusuff, M. Kumar, B.O. Obe, L.O. Mudashiru, Calcium Oxide Supported on Coal Fly Ash (CaO/CFA) as an Efficient Catalyst for FAME Production from Jatropha Curcas Oil. Topics in Catalysis (2021).

DOI: 10.1007/s11244-021-01478-1

Google Scholar

[24] H. Dadhania, D. Raval, A. Dadhania, Magnetically separable heteropolyanion-based ionic liquid as a heterogeneous catalyst for ultrasound-mediated FAME production through the esterification of fatty acids. Fuel 296 (2021) 120673.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2021.120673

Google Scholar

[25] K. Nwosu-Obieogu, U.C. Nonso, O.D. Okechukwu, J.E. Joseph, Shea butter transesterification through clay-doped BaCl and ionic catalyst; process parameter impacts and kinetic evaluation. Sustainable Chemistry One World 6 (2025) 100057.

DOI: 10.1016/j.scowo.2025.100057

Google Scholar

[26] O.D. Onukwuli, C.N. Ude, Kinetics of African pear seed oil (APO) methanolysis catalyzed by phosphoric acid-activated kaolin clay. Applied Petrochemical Research 8(4) (2018) 299-313.

DOI: 10.1007/s13203-018-0210-0

Google Scholar

[27] A. Kurhade, A.K. Dalai, Kinetic modeling, mechanistic, and thermodynamic studies of HPW-MAS-9 catalysed transesterification reaction for FAME synthesis. Fuel Processing Technology 196 (2019) 106164.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2019.106164

Google Scholar

[28] A.J. Abu, F.D. Muhammad, F.E. Awe, The effect of extraction method on fatty acid profile of traditionally and mechanically extracted shea butter samples from Nasarawa State. FUDMA Journal of Sciences 9(5) (2025) 239-243.

DOI: 10.33003/fjs-2025-0905-3629

Google Scholar

[29] O.D. Akin-Ajani, N. Kuntworbe, O.A. Odeku, Coconut oil and shea butter as lipids for the formulation of ciprofloxacin-loaded nanoparticles. Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation 20(1) (2025) 12.

DOI: 10.1007/s12247-025-09922-5

Google Scholar

[30] C.N. Chou, L.C. Lin, S.C. Chien, Surface area determination of porous materials: a weighted-average BET approach. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers (2025) 106305.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2025.106305

Google Scholar

[31] K. Nwosu-Obieogu, M.A. Allen, C. Nwogu, B. Nwankwojike, S. Bright, C. Goodnews, Luffa oil transesterification prediction via adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system using an acid-activated waste marble catalyst. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy 91(1) (2025) 299-311.

DOI: 10.1007/s43538-024-00341-7

Google Scholar

[32] M. Keihanfar, B.B.F. Mirjalili, A. Bamoniri, Bentonite/Ti(IV) as a natural based nano-catalyst for synthesis of pyrimido[2,1-b]benzothiazole under grinding condition. Scientific Reports 15(1) (2025) 6328.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-80092-z

Google Scholar

[33] A.S. Farooqi, M.Z. Shahid, M. Essalhi, M.M. Hossain, M.M. Abdelnaby, M.A. Sanhoob, M.A. Nemitallah, Performance of Ni-M/Ca12Al14O33 (M=Co, Cu and Fe) bimetallic catalysts in sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming for blue hydrogen production. Catalysis Today 454 (2025) 115281.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2025.115281

Google Scholar

[34] A.N. Potorochenko, Y.V. Gyrdymova, K.S. Rodygin, Waste-derived catalyst for biodiesel manufacturing in CO2-free manner: Preparation, catalytic activity, and reuse studies. ChemCatChem 17(5) (2025) e202401607.

DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202401607

Google Scholar

[35] S. Akbar, M.N. Qureshi, S.A. Khan, Fabrication of chitosan supported copper nanocatalyst for the hydrogen gas production through methanolysis and hydrolysis of NaBH4. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 101 (2025) 313-322.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.462

Google Scholar

[36] F. Bo, K. Wang, J. Liang, T. Zhao, J. Wang, Y. He, X. Gao, Recent advances in the application of in situ X-ray diffraction techniques to characterize phase transitions in Fischer–Tropsch synthesis catalysts. Green Carbon 3(1) (2025) 22-35.

DOI: 10.1016/j.greenca.2024.09.009

Google Scholar

[37] S. Badoga, A. Alvarez-Majmutov, M. Shakouri, J. Chen, Catalyst synthesis, characterization, and testing for low-temperature hydrotreating of pyrolysis bio-oil. Catalysis Today (2025) 115488.

DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2025.115488

Google Scholar

[38] E.O. Ajala, F. Aberuagba, A.M. Olaniyan, K.R. Onifade, Optimization of solvent extraction of shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa) using response surface methodology and its characterization. Journal of Food Science and Technology 53(1) (2016) 730-738.

DOI: 10.1007/s13197-015-2033-7

Google Scholar

[39] F.P.M. da Silva Ferreira, G. Simonelli, L.C.L. dos Santos, Biodiesel production via transesterification: a review on process intensification with ultrasound and surfactants. Revista de Gestão e Secretariado 16(2) (2025) e4631.

DOI: 10.7769/gesec.v16i2.4631

Google Scholar

[40] S. Veluturla, S. Ravi, Process intensification strategies for the production of biodiesel-A review. ChemBioEng Reviews (2025) e70004.

DOI: 10.1002/cben.70004

Google Scholar

[41] D.D. Alcalá-Galiano-Morell, L.B. Ramos-Sánchez, P. Fickers, E. Romero-Borbón, N.D. Ortega-de la Rosa, J. Córdova, A multi reaction kinetic model to describe the enzymatic transesterification reaction of jatropha oil using a fermented solid containing lipases. Carbon Resources Conversion 8(3) (2025) 100272.

DOI: 10.1016/j.crcon.2024.100272

Google Scholar

[42] A.K. Ayoob, A.B. Fadhil, Valorization of waste tires in the synthesis of an effective carbon-based catalyst for FAME production from a mixture of non-edible oils. Fuel 264 (2020) 116754.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116754

Google Scholar

[43] S. Zhao, S. Niu, H. Yu, Y. Ning, X. Zhang, L. Xi, Y. Zhang, C. Lu, K. Han, Experimental investigation on FAME production through transesterification promoted by the La-dolomite catalyst. Fuel 257 (2019) 116092.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2019.116092

Google Scholar

[44] B. Changmai, R. Rano, C. Vanlalveni, S.L. Rokhum, A novel Citrus sinensis peel ash coated magnetic nanoparticles as an easily recoverable solid catalyst for biodiesel production. Fuel 286 (2021) 119447.

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119447

Google Scholar

[45] S. Joseph, F.B. Abifarin, W.W. Jikisim, B.N. Jibrillu, J.K. Abifarin, Sustainable synthesis of shea butter-derived bio-lubricants: a green alternative to mineral oils. Next Sustainability 5 (2025) 100128.

DOI: 10.1016/j.nxsust.2025.100128

Google Scholar